Optimism in Women Reporting Relationship Abuse Histories
Sarah L. Hastings & Trisha Nash
Department of Psychology, Radford University, Radford, Virginia
Abstract
Methodology
This study examined levels of optimism in women who reported a history of
abuse, including physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. Optimism was
conceptualized both as a measure of generalized positive expectancy, and as
a function of explanatory style. It was hypothesized that those participants
who were involved in abusive relationships would have a more negative
general expectancy level, a more pessimistic explanatory style and would
score higher on measures of hopelessness. The study found that a history of
abuse was associated with general negative expectations in life, but not with a
pessimistic explanatory style. The measure of hopelessness was also not
correlated to a statistically significant degree.
Participants were 265 undergraduate female students at a mid-sized public university
in the southeastern United States, who responded to an online questionnaire
administered in a campus computer lab. The mean age was 19.74. Of the sample,
83% identified their ethnicity as Caucasian/White, 7.5% identified themselves as
African American, 1.5 % as Hispanic , and 8 % as “Other.”
Theoretical Background
Women who have experienced abuse are at an increased risk for a number
of mental and physical health conditions (Orava, McLeod, and Sharpe, 1996;
Plichta, 1996). Yet, a growing body of literature suggests that personal
characteristics as well as social supports, may buffer women from the
effects of traumatic events. Optimism and hope, for example, have been
linked with positive health and recovery, and may serve as protective factors
against trauma (Peterson, 2000).
Recent interest in positive psychology and stress-related growth have led
some scholars to call for a greater integration of these concepts into the
mainstream study of trauma and violence (Ai & Park, 2005). Understanding
the links between optimism and trauma promises to help researchers
understand how individuals rebuild their lives after traumatic events. Further,
it may help illuminate factors contributing to women’s ability to terminate an
intimate relationship that becomes violent, and assist other women in
avoiding violent partners altogether.
Our research team became interested in the links between optimism and
relationship violence among university women. Humphrey and White (2000)
found that 69.8% of college women reported at least 1 account of sexual
violence during adolescence and through their college years.
Women who were physically assaulted during adolescence were at greater
risk for violence during college. The authors concluded there is a need for
further study regarding factors that reduce victimization.
This study examined the association between relationship abuse and levels
of optimism. Optimism was conceptualized both as a generalized positive
expectancy and as a measure of explanatory style. Participants reported on
a number of relationship variables including history of abuse. In addition,
they completed two measures of optimism, the LOT-R (Scheier & Carver,
1992) and the ASQ (Peterson, C., Semmel, Al, von Baeyer, C., Abramson, L.
Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Seligman, M. E. P., 1982).
In terms of sexual orientation, 97% were straight, 1% were gay or lesbian, 2% were
bisexual. Fifty-eight percent indicated they were in a committed relationship of at least
3 months duration, while forty-two were not in committed relationships at the time of
the study. Twenty-five percent stated they were involved in an abusive relationship,
with emotional abuse identified as the most common form. Of those reporting abuse,
only 1 indicated current abuse in her relationship.
In addition to demographics, participants completed a questionnaire which assessed
the following:
Generalized positive expectancy. The Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R) is a
measure of generalized optimism versus pessimism (Scheier & Carver, 1992).
Possible scores range from 6-30.
Explanatory style. The Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ) measures optimism as
an attributional style (Peterson et al., 1982). Possible scores range from -18 to +18.
Results
Correlations Between Abuse History
and Test Scores
Abuse in
relationship
1.25
(.43)
LOT-R
21.05
(4.28)
ASQ
3.44
(2.44)
hopelessness
4.07
(.68)
LOT-R
ASQ
hopelessness
-.13*
.12
-.06
(.76)
.15*
-.04
(.73)
-.51**
(.66)
*p<.05; **p<.01; N range 236-359
(N ranges varied from 236-259 due to missing data)
Alphas are reported on the diagonal
Printing Supported by the RU Honors Academy
Women with a history of abuse scored lower on the LOT-R, indicating that
they reported a reduced overall general positive expectancy (r =-.131, p
<.05).
No significant relationship between history of abuse and negative
explanatory style, as measured by the ASQ (r =.115) was found.
Similarly, there was no significant relationship between abuse history and
hopelessness, as measured by the ASQ (r = -.062). We also examined
history of abuse and hopefulness, a subscale of the ASQ, but found no
significance (r = .031).
These results indicate that women reporting a history of relationship
abuse differed from women without a history of relationship abuse in
optimism when it was measured as generalized expectancy. The two
groups did not differ significantly when optimism was measured as an
explanatory style.
Discussion
The association between abuse history and optimism was statistically
significant, though small. Women with a history of abuse displayed more
generalized pessimism, suggesting that these women anticipate less
favorable outcomes for themselves. Importantly, however, abuse history
was not associated with a negative explanatory style or with levels of
hopelessness as measured by the ASQ.
Table 1
Means
(SD)
We examined the association between participant scores on the LOT-R,
the. ASQ, the hopelessness subscale of the ASQ, and participants’ reports
of abuse history. The mean scores were as follows: LOT-R (x=21.05,
SD=4.28), ASQ (x=3.44, SD=2.44), hopelessness (x=4.07, SD=.682). Of
.
the 265 participants, 25 percent reported abuse
in a current or past
relationship.
It is curious to consider why women with a history of relationship abuse
anticipate less favorable outcomes overall, but do not display a pessimistic
attributional style, As a generalized expectancy, optimism as described by
Carver and Scheier(1981) is displayed by individuals as long as they view
their goals as attainable. If, however, goals exceed their reach, individuals
tend to exhibit reduced ambition and increased disengagement from goalseeking.
Optimism, when conceptualized as attributional style, describes
differences in the way people explain good and bad events in their lives.
Thus, in our sample, women with a history of relationship abuse did not
differ markedly from women without this history.
Our findings suggest that abuse history is associated with generalized
negative expectancies. Given the correlational nature of this study, we are
confronted with the “chicken and egg” problem. Does a history of abuse
lead women to expect less favorable outcomes for themselves, or are
women with negative expectations more vulnerable to abusive
relationships because they do not expect more? Further research using a
longitudinal design to examine optimism and relationship involvement over
time will help clarify the direction of the associations observed in this
study.
There are limitations that our study presents. Our sample was allowed to
define “abuse” in their own terms. Future research should operationalize
abuse fin items presented to participants. In addition, the sample in this
study was rather homogenous and of a relatively young age. It would be
helpful to examine a more diverse sample in future studies.