Theories of Practice:
The Structural Frame
MPA 8002
The Structure and Theory of Human
Organization
Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.
Since the mid-19th century and
throughout the Industrial Era, social
scientists have made inquiry into the
nature of human organizations. The
overall endeavor has been to
objectify and analyze those factors
which constitute effective and
efficient organizations.
The goal has been to characterize how
effective and efficient organizations:
 function well
 achieve and surpass goals
 survive and thrive in the environment
 what competitors emulate
The rational and objective side of
human organizations...
The structural frame upholds the notion that
organizations are judged primarily on and
by the proper functioning of those elements
which constitute good organization...
…giving appropriate emphasis to the process
integrating people and technology...
…and enabling the organization to achieve its
goals.
A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO
The fundamental responsibility of managers and leaders
is to clarify organizational goals, to attend to the
relationship between structure and environment, and to
develop a structure that is clear and appropriate to the
goals, the task, and the environment. Without such a
structure, people become unsure about what they are
supposed to be doing. The result is confusion,
frustration, and conflict. In an effective organization,
individuals are clear about their responsibilities and their
contribution. Policies, linkages, and lines of authority
are well-defined. When an organization has the right
structure and people understand it, the organization can
achieve its goals and individuals can be effective in their
roles.
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP
IN A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO
The job of managers and leaders is to focus on task, facts,
and logic, not personality and emotions. Most “people”
problems really stem from structural flaws rather than from
flaws in individuals. Structural managers and leaders are
not necessarily authoritarian and do not necessarily solve
every problem by issuing orders (though that will
sometimes be appropriate). Instead, they try to design and
implement a process or structure appropriate to the
problem and the circumstances.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 355)
the structural frame
Primary
Metaphor for
Organization:
 Factory
 Machine
Central
Concepts:






Rules
Roles
Goals
Policies
Technology
Environment
Managerial
and
Leadership
Image:
 Social
architect
 Chief
Executive
Officer
 President
Fundamental
Challenge:
 Attune
structure to
task,
technology,
environment
 Align people,
process, and
technology
For the greater part of the 20th
century, the assumptions and
concepts of scientific management
have informed most theories of
practice.
One of the earliest precursors of
scientific management...
Max Weber
19th century sociologist
 hired by Frederick the Great to
reorganize the Prussian army
 conceived the “rationalized
bureaucracy”

But, if Max Weber “rationalized”
the bureaucracy…
…Frederick Winslow Taylor
“hyper-rationalized” the
bureaucracy.
Frederick Winslow Taylor...






the “father” of scientific management
originally trained as a statistician
sought an objective, scientific mechanism
to improve organizational functioning
conducted time and motion studies
to ascertain the “one best way”
in turn, this provided the basis for worker
training, assessment, and improvement
In 1911, Taylor published his theory
of practice, The Principles of
Scientific Management...
...eventually, Taylor’s book became the
standard textbook in management
training in the North America and
Europe.
The assumptions of scientific
management...
1. organizations exist to achieve established
goals and objectives
2. organizations work best when rationality
prevails over personal preferences and external
pressures
3. structures must be designed to fit an
organization’s circumstances (including its
goals, technology, and environment)
4. organizations increase efficiency and
enhance performance through specialization
and division of labor
5. appropriate forms of coordination and control
are essential to ensure that individuals and
units work together although both are
subordinate to organizational goals
6. problems and performance gaps arise from
structural deficiencies and are best remedied
through organizational restructuring
The Five Principles of Scientific
Management...
1. shift all responsibility for the organization
of work from the worker to the manager
2. use scientific methods to determine the
most efficient way of doing the work
3. select the best person to perform the job
thus designed
4. train the worker to do the work efficiently
5. monitor worker performance
Although “common sense” by
today’s standards...

Taylor’s principles were a fundamental
assault upon traditional theories of
practice

Taylor’s intention was to effect a
“mental revolution” aimed at
transforming how people looked at
work, their lives, and their world
The mental revolution...
reform:

fixed division of labor
replaced:

craft guilds and trades where one worker
completes an entire job
reform:

uniform rules govern job performance
replaced:

work dictated by the caprice, whim,
fancy, or feeling of a superordinate
reform:

workers would possess technical qualifications
replaced:

patrimony, patronage, graft
reform:

the separation of person from office
replaced:

individual assertions, claims, tenure
reform:

a hierarchy of officers
replaced:

dictators, autocrats, monarchs
reform:

work as a “life-long” career in an organization
replaced:

work as a “trade” where workers seek
employment wherever available
Taylor’s mental revolution also
transformed managerial practice...

his principles focused attention upon
the manager as a “social architect”
In practice episodes...

managers apply the principles and
concepts of scientific management
to resolve the fundamental dilemmas
present in the workplace
Although Taylor is oftentimes credited (or
discredited) for rationalizing the workplace,
he was the first to introduce the concept of
“creativity” into the managerial process.
Management and leadership as
creative “social architecture”...
fundamental concepts:



integration: the manager devises a structure to
conjoin people, process, and technology in
the most efficient and effective way possible
division of labor: the manager designs an
appropriate means of control to facilitate
vertical and lateral integration
span of control: the manager organizes a
system of supervision and accountability
The dilemmas confronting
managers and leaders...
differentiation
vs.
integration
gaps
vs.
overlaps
underuse
vs.
overload
lack of clarity
vs.
lack of creativity
excessive
autonomy
vs.
excessive
interdependence
too loose
vs.
too tight
diffuse authority
vs.
over-centralization
goal-less
vs.
goal-bound
irresponsibility
vs.
unresponsiveness
Scientific management...



focuses on the social context of work
specifies goals, roles, and relationships
encourages organizational efficiency and
effectiveness
In its inception, scientific management represented
a fundamental reform of the workplace. But, as
scientific management became an orthodox
ideology governing practice episodes, some of its
assumptions proved to be problematic.
“Taylorism” as scientific
management came to be known...

dominated the training of managers and
leaders for most of the 20th century
 eventually became an ideology shaping
how people viewed virtually every form of
human organization, including for-profit
business, not-for-profit social services
(e.g., hospitals, municipal governments,
schools), and even homes
Some recent kindred cousins of
scientific management...

PERT Analysis (1960s)

Management By Objectives (1970s)

Total Quality Management (1980s)

Strategic Planning (1980s)

Organizational Re-Engineering
(1990s)
But, the principles contain hidden
assumptions...
1. shift all responsibility for the
organization of work from the
worker to the manager
managers do all of the thinking
related to the planning and
design of work, leaving the
workers with the task of
implementation
2. use scientific methods to
determine the most efficient way
of doing the work
managers design the worker’s
task by specifying the precise
way in which the work is to be
done
3. select the best person to perform
the job thus designed
job competencies and
requirements can be explicitly
detailed
4. train the worker to do the work
efficiently
training is routinized, involving
demonstration, practice, and
drill
5. monitor worker performance
managers ensure that appropriate
procedures are followed and that
pre-determined results are achieved
The power of scientific
management...
structural elements:
hierarchies
division of labor
policies
span of control
integration
implies
procedures
rules
assessment
…can improve organizational
functioning...
As these structural elements align people, process,
and technology:

the structure will support the work

the organizational structure and workforce will
complement one another

efficiency and effectiveness will create the
circumstances for achieving the organization’s
goals
…or can become an ideology...
When the structural elements become more
important than the people in the organization:

the structure will remain impervious to challenge

tensions between structure and people will mount

inefficiencies and ineffectiveness will contribute
to organizational dysfunction

new management will re-establish control—or—
the organization will flounder until it eventually
dies in its environment
Managing and leading human
organizations requires...

developing a comprehensive
conception of the organization
 What is its mission and vision?
 What are its current strategies and goals?
 What does its history say about the organization’s
strengths and weaknesses?
 What opportunities and threats are present?

critically examining existing
structures and processes
 How do things really work?
 How did things come to be this way?
 Gather factual data that support these matters.
Do not rely on anecdotal information.
 Rather than attempting to “reinvent the wheel,” how
might elements of the present structure be used to
foster organizational change?

designing an organizational structure that
takes into account its history, experience,
and preferred future:
 formulate an organizational purpose that responds to
an environmental demand, a perceived need, or an
opportunity to be seized
 mix expertise and generate healthy organizational
tension by cross-fertilizing divisions
 forge a common commitment to making “working”
decisions for which members bear responsibility but,
at the same time, are subject to re-assessment and
change
Using scientific management...
VISION
MISSION

a preferred future

the motivation

what ought to be

the opportunities

based upon factual
data

the challenges
VISION
MISSION
PURPOSE
PURPOSE

a shared motive

with explicit values

explicating why
we do what we do
STRATEGY

formulate preferred
scenario

define the “game
plan”
STRATEGY

frames subsequent
decisions that will be
made at lower levels
of the organizational
hierarchy
GOALS


action-oriented,
“smart” outcomes
which implement the
strategy
 translate the organizational purpose and strategy
into performance goals
S
short
M
measurable
A
achievable
R
realistic
T
time bound
GOALS

frame subsequent
decision making by the
various groups closest
to the action where
frequent decisions must
be made
TACTICS


purposive actions by
groups in practice
episodes
how we will do what
we will do
TACTICS

frame subsequent
decision making by
individuals who do the
“work”
PROJECTS


purposive actions by
individuals in practice
episodes
what I will do
VISION
GOALS
MISSION
TACTICS
PURPOSE
STRATEGIES
PROJECTS
All the while, management and
leadership endeavors to...
 regularize a system for individual and collective
accountability, one that translates the organizational
purpose, goals, and commitments into tangible
achievements
intra-organizational
cohesion
 adopt the “experimental mentality” associated with
practice episodes: to retain what works, to discard
what doesn’t, and to refine the structure as needed
flexibility
 report back what is being learned through practice
honest and
accurate
feedback
To avoid organizational
dysfunction...
The manager’s challenge is to
integrate vertical coordination with
lateral control
vertical
coordination
lateral control
one focus:
vertical
coordination
...to integrate the various levels
of the organization’s formal
hierarchy
Tactics for vertical coordination...
power
rules and policies
planning
and
control systems
legitimate coercive
referent
expert
reward
specify the
conditions of
work
performance control
action planning
a second focus:
lateral
control
…to balance the need for
autonomy and responsibility at
similar levels in the
organization’s formal hierarchy
Tactics to exercise lateral
control...
meetings
opportunities for
dialogue, feedback
about operations,
and the honest
exchange of facts
and insights
Meeting agendas should forge structural redesign
that promises to improve organizational
functioning not provide a forum to air personal
grievances and interpersonal conflicts.
task forces
groupings of
stakeholders
representing
diverse
viewpoints
A task force is given a specific charge to
integrate structures not to be mired in endless
debate about current standard operating
procedures.
coordinating roles
engaging in
boundary
spanning
Boundary spanning enables workers to
develop the cross-functional skills needed to
coordinate work in a complex organization.
This liberates both the organization and its
members from co-dependency.
matrix structures
identifying
critical linkages
between
divisions
Matrix structures identify and link otherwise
disassociated divisions in the endeavor to
eliminate inter-divisional conflict, confusion,
and turf protection.
networks
individuals and
groups focusing
on a particular
area of interest
Self-organizing networks provide the much
needed cross-functionality and geographical
diversity to spur creative thinking about
organizational issues. However, networks are
unwieldy, difficult to control, and offer no
guarantees of positive outcomes.
While using these tactics to integrate...
vertical
coordination
lateral control
Managers and leaders need to be
realistic...
A realistic theory of managerial
and leadership...

the central issue confronting
managers and leaders is that change
not stability characterizes human
organizations
However, scientific management and the
structural theories of practice associated with it
are constructed on the false premise that change
does not characterize organizations.

Some of the significant changes
impacting organizational functioning
include:
size of organization
environment
age of organization
organizational vision
core process
information technology

However, the single, most significant
change impacting an organization is:
people
Because organizations are
primarily human enterprises...

managers and leaders use scientific
management by focusing upon
developing a “team”
 a small number of people possessing complementary
skills
 committed to a common purpose, set of performance
goals, and approach toward achieving them
 for which they hold themselves mutually accountable

change alters the clarity and stability
of roles and relationships, creating
confusion and chaos
This requires managers and leaders to
be attentive to periodically realigning
and renegotiating formal patterns and
policies.
Structural tasks for managers and
leaders...
1. set goals and policies under
conditions of uncertainty
2. achieve “delicate balance” in
allocating scarce resources
across different businesses or
functions
3. motivate, coordinate, and control
large, diverse group of subordinates
Using scientific management...
effective managers and leaders are
…social architects
…honest analysis
whose primary concerns are
…creative design
Abusing scientific management...
ineffective managers and leaders are
whose primary concerns are
…petty tyrants
…micro-managing
…issuing memos
…ruling by fiat
Strengths of the scientific
management theory of practice...
…objectivity
…logical
…action oriented
…modes of accountability
Limitations of the scientific
management theory of practice...
…impersonal
…overly simplistic
…pessimistic
…inflexible
Integrating reflective practice, conceptual
pluralism, and organizational analysis...
Analyzing organizations through four frames
inculcates the conceptual pluralism that
managers and leaders need to diagnose the
issues underlying the problems manifesting
themselves in human organizations.
the structural frame
the human resources frame
the political frame
the symbolic frame
This module has focused on...
the scientific management theories
that managers and leaders can utilize in
practice episodes
as these theories of practice provide
managers a frame of reference to inform
decision making, the
the structural frame
offers managers and leaders guidance
about the strengths and limits of
scientific management theory
A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO
The fundamental responsibility of managers and leaders
is to clarify organizational goals, to attend to the
relationship between structure and environment, and to
develop a structure that is clear and appropriate to the
goals, the task, and the environment. Without such a
structure, people become unsure about what they are
supposed to be doing. The result is confusion,
frustration, and conflict. In an effective organization,
individuals are clear about their responsibilities and their
contribution. Policies, linkages, and lines of authority
are well-defined. When an organization has the right
structure and people understand it, the organization can
achieve its goals and individuals can be effective in their
roles.
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP
IN A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO
The job of managers and leaders is to focus on task, facts,
and logic, not personality and emotions. Most “people”
problems really stem from structural flaws rather than from
flaws in individuals. Structural managers and leaders are
not necessarily authoritarian and do not necessarily solve
every problem by issuing orders (though that will
sometimes be appropriate). Instead, they try to design and
implement a process or structure appropriate to the
problem and the circumstances.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 355)
the structural frame
Primary
Metaphor for
Organization:
 Factory
 Machine
Central
Concepts:






Rules
Roles
Goals
Policies
Technology
Environment
Managerial
and
Leadership
Image:
 Social
architect
 Chief
Executive
Officer
 President
Fundamental
Challenge:
 Attune
structure to
task,
technology,
environment
 Align people,
process, and
technology
The next module will focus on...
the human resources frame
and the psychological theories that
managers and leaders can utilize in
practice episodes
A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
People are the heart of any organization. When
people feel the organization is responsive to their
needs and supportive of their goals, managers and
leaders can count on their followers’ commitment and
loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian
or insensitive, who don’t communicate effectively, or
who simply don’t care about their people can never be
effective managers and leaders. The human resource
manager and leader works on behalf of both the
organization and its people, seeking to serve the best
interests of both.
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP
IN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
The job of the manager and leader is one of support and
empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people
know that they are important and that managers and leaders are
concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’
aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and
openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their
followers through participation and openness as well as by
making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they
need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders
emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify
issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others
when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness
and caring.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)
the human resources frame
Primary
Metaphor for
Organization:
 Family
 Tribe
 Clan
Central
Concepts:





Relationships
Self-Interest
Needs
Feelings
Skills




Managerial
And
Leadership
Image:
Fundamental
Challenge:
Empowerment
Liberation
Fulfillment
SelfActualization
 Attune
organizational
and human
needs
References





Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1997). Reframing
organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (2nd edition).
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Morgan, G. (1986). Images of organization. Beverly Hills,
CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Sergiovanni, T. J. (1989). Informing professional practice in
educational administration. Journal of Educational
Administration, 27(2), p. 186.
Taylor, F. W. (1911/1967). The principles of scientific
management. New York: W. W. Norton.
Weber, M. (1930/1992). The Protestant ethic and the spirit
of capitalism (A. Giddens, Trans.). New York: Routledge.