Mata kuliah : J0782 - Kepemimpinan Entrepreneurial Global
Tahun
: 2010
Kepemimpinan dan Manajerial
Chapter 1
Learning Objectives
• Understand why leadership has been defined in so
many different ways
• Understand how leadership will be defined in this book
• Understand the controversy about differences between
leadership and management
• Understand why it is so difficult to assess leadership
effectiveness
Learning Objectives (Cont.)
• Understand the different indicators used to
assess leadership effectiveness
• Understand what aspects of leadership have
been studied the most during the past 50 years
• Understand how leadership can be described as
an individual, dyadic, group, or organizational
process
• Understand the organization of this book
Defining Leadership
“There
are almost as many
definitions of Leadership as there
are persons who have attempted to
define the concept.” (Stogdill, 1974)
Definitions of Leadership
Additional Controversy
• Specialized role or shared influence process
• Type of influence process
• Purpose of influence attempts
• Influence based on reason or emotions
• Direct versus indirect leadership
• Leadership versus management
Specialized Role or Shared Influence
Process
• Specialized Role
– Specific leadership role – some functions
cannot be shared
– Leaders and followers
• Shared Influence Process
– Naturally occurring
– Any member can be a leader at any time
Type of Influence Process
• Leadership only occurs when
influence attempts results in
enthusiastic commitment
• All types of influence need to be
examined – even when forcing or
manipulating subordinates
Purpose of Influence Attempts
• Leadership occurs only when
people are influenced to do what is
ethical and consistent with
organizational goals
• Look at outcome of the influence
attempts and not necessarily the
leader’s intended purpose
Influence Based on Reason or Emotion
• Traditional definitions of leadership
emphasize rational, cognitive
processes
• Recent views of leadership
emphasize emotional aspects of
influence
Leadership vs. Management
• Leaders and managers are completely
different and mutually exclusive
– Managers are concerned with doing
things right (efficiency)
– Leaders are concerned with doing the
right things (effectiveness)
Leadership vs. Management
(Cont.)
• Leaders and managers are different
roles but don’t have to be different types
of people
– Mintzberg’s 10 leadership roles
– Kotter differentiating between managers
and leaders in terms of core processes and
intended outcomes
– Rost view of management as an authority
relationship and leadership as a
multidirectional influence relationship
Direct vs. Indirect Leadership
• Direct leadership
– Leader’s direct influence on immediate subordinates
– Leader’s direct influence on lower-level employees, peers,
bosses, or outsiders
• Indirect leadership
– Cascading effect of leadership influence
– Influence over formal programs, management systems, and
structural forms
– Influence over organizational culture
A Working Definition of Leadership
“Leadership is the process of influencing
others to understand and agree about
what needs to be done and how to do it,
and the process of facilitating individual
and collective efforts to accomplish shared
objectives.”
What Leaders Can Influence
Indicators of Leadership Effectiveness
• Performance and growth of leader’s group or
organization
• Follower attitudes and perceptions of the leader
• Leader’s contribution to the quality of group
processes
• Extent to which a person has a successful career
as a leader
• Development of a composite measure
Immediate and Delayed Outcomes
• Immediate outcomes easy to measure
– Willingness to complete a project
• Delayed outcomes difficult to assess
– Influenced by extraneous events
• Leader can effect both immediate and delayed
outcomes
– May be inconsistent and move in opposite directions
Leadership Causal Chain
Key Variables in Leadership Theories
• Characteristics of the Leader
• Characteristics of the Follower
• Characteristics of the Situation
Characteristics of the Leader
•
•
•
•
•
Traits (motives, personality, values)
Confidence and optimism
Skills and expertise
Behavior
Integrity (honesty, behavior consistent with
values)
• Influence tactics
• Attributions about followers
Characteristics of the Follower
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Traits (needs, values, self concepts)
Confidence and optimism
Skills and expertise
Attributions about the leader
Trust in the leader
Task commitment and effort
Satisfaction with job and leader
Characteristics of the Situation
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Type of organizational unit
Size of unit
Position power and authority of leader
Task structure and complexity
Task interdependence
Environmental uncertainty
External dependencies
National cultural values
Causal Relationship Between Key Variables
Overview of Major
Research Approaches
•
•
•
•
•
Trait approach
Behavior approach
Power-influence approach
Situational approach
Integrative approach
Level of Conceptualization for
Leadership
Research Questions at Different Levels of
Conceptualization
• Intra-Individual Theories
–
–
–
–
How leaders manage their time
How leader traits and values influence leadership behavior
How leader skills are related to leader behavior
How leaders make decisions
Research Questions at Different Levels
of Conceptualization (Cont.)
• Intra-Individual Theories (Cont.)
–
–
–
–
How leaders are influenced by role expectations and constraints
How leaders react to feedback and learn from experience
How leaders can use self-management techniques
How leaders can use self-development techniques
Research Questions at Different Levels
of Conceptualization (Cont.)
• Dyadic Theories
– How a leader influences subordinate motivation and task
commitment
– How a leader facilitates the work of a subordinate
– How a leader interprets information about a subordinate
– How a leader develops a subordinate’s skills and confidence
Research Questions at Different Levels
of Conceptualization (Cont.)
• Dyadic Theories (Cont.)
– How a leader influences subordinate loyalty and trust
– How a leader uses influence tactics with a subordinate, peer, or
boss
– How a leader and a subordinate influence each other
– How a leader develops a cooperative exchange relationship with
a subordinate
Research Questions at Different Levels
of Conceptualization (Cont.)
• Group-Level Theories
– How different leader-member relations affect each other and
team performance
– How leadership is shared in the group or team
– How leaders organize and coordinate the activities of team
members
– How leaders influence cooperation and resolve disagreements in
the team or unit
Research Questions at Different Levels
of Conceptualization (Cont.)
• Group-Level Theories (Cont.)
– How leaders influence collective efficacy and optimism for
the team or unit
– How leaders influence collective learning and innovation in
the team or unit
– How leaders influence collective identification of members
with the team or unit
– How unit leaders obtain resources and support from the
organization and other units
Research Questions at Different Levels
of Conceptualization (Cont.)
• Organization-Level Theories
– How top executives influence lower-level members
– How leaders are selected at each level (and implications of
process for the firm)
– How leaders influence organizational culture
– How leaders influence the efficiency and the cost of internal
operations
Research Questions at Different Levels
of Conceptualization (Cont.)
• Organization-Level Theories (Cont.)
– How leaders influence human relations and human
capital in the organization
– How leaders make decisions about competitive
strategy and external initiatives
– How conflicts among leaders are resolved in an
organization
– How leaders influence innovation and major change in
an organization
Level of Conceptualization
for Leadership
• Intra-individual process – focuses on processes within a
single individual
• Dyadic process – focuses on the relationship between a
leader and another individual
• Group process – focuses on the leadership role in a task
group and how a leader contributes to group effectiveness
• Organizational process – focuses on leadership as a
process that occurs in a larger open system in which
groups are a subsystem
• Multi-level theories – include constructs from more than
one level of explanation
Other Bases for Comparing
Leadership Theories
• Leader vs. Follower-Centered Theory
• Descriptive vs. Prescriptive Theory
• Universal vs. Contingency Theory
Perspectives on
Effective Leadership Behavior
Learning Objectives
• Understand what research methods have been
used to study leadership behavior
• Understand the findings in the early research on
leadership behavior
• Understand how leadership behavior can be
described with either broad or specific
categories
• Understand the different methods for developing
taxonomies of leadership behavior
Learning Objectives (Cont.)
• Understand why task and relations behaviors
are important for leadership effectiveness
• Understand how specific types of task and
relations behaviors can be used effectively
• Understand why it is useful to classify
leadership behavior in terms of a threedimensional model
• Understand the contributions and limitations of
the behavior approach
Ohio State Leadership Studies
• Leadership Behaviors
– Consideration – leader’s concern for people and
interpersonal relationships
– Initiating structure – leader’s concern for
accomplishing the task
Ohio State Leadership Studies
Research Results
• Relation between consideration and turnover rate
Ohio State Leadership Studies
Research Results (Cont.)
• Relation between initiating structure and turnover rate
Michigan Leadership Studies
• Leadership Behaviors
– Task-oriented behaviors
– Relations-oriented behaviors
– Participative leadership
• Peer Leadership
Limitations of Survey Research
• Bias in Behavior Description Questionnaires
– Ambiguous items
– Response bias
– Aggregation of items
Problems Interpreting
Causality in Survey
Studies
Experiments
• Laboratory Experiments
– Low external validity (generalizability)
– High internal validity
– Inconsistent findings
• Field Experiments
–
–
–
–
Difficult to conduct
High external validity
Low internal validity
Positive results for relations-oriented behaviors; mixed
and inconsistent results for task-oriented behaviors
Critical Incident Research
•
Types of Leader Behaviors
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
•
Planning, coordinating, and organizing operations
Supervising subordinates
Establishing and maintaining good relations with
subordinates
Establishing and maintaining good relations with
superiors, peers, and outsiders
Assuming responsibility for observing organizational
policies, carrying out required duties, and making
necessary decisions
Limitations of Critical Incident Research
The “High-High” Leader
•
•
•
•
The Managerial Grid & PM Leadership Theory
Additive versus Multiplicative Model
Limited Support for a Universal Model
Need to incorporate situational variables
Concern for People
Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid
9 (1,9)
8 Country Club
7
(9,9)
Team Management
6
Middle-of-the-Road
5
4
(5,5)
3
2 Impoverished
1
Authority-Compliance
(9,1)
(1,1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Concern for Production
7
8
9
Leadership Behavior Taxonomies
Leadership Behavior Taxonomies
(Cont.)
• Sources of Diversity Among Taxonomies
– No absolute set of correct behaviors
– Levels of abstraction
– Various methods used to develop taxonomies
• Limitations of Factor-Based Taxonomies
Behaviors at Different Levels of
Abstraction
Leadership Behavior Taxonomies
• Three-Dimensional
Taxonomy
– Task-Oriented Behaviors
– Relations-Oriented
Behaviors
– Change-Oriented
Behaviors
Task-Oriented Behaviors
•
•
•
•
•
Organize work activities to improve efficiency
Plan short-term operation
Assign work to groups or individuals
Clarify what results are expected for a task
Set specific goals and standards for task performance
Task-Oriented Behaviors (Cont.)
• Explain rules, policies, and standard operating
procedures
• Direct and coordinate work activities
• Monitor operations and performance
• Resolve immediate problems that would disrupt the work
Relations-Oriented Behaviors
• Provide support and encouragement to someone with a
difficult task
• Express confidence that a person or group can perform
a difficult task
• Socialize with people to build relationships
• Recognize contributions and accomplishments
• Provide coaching and mentoring when appropriate
Relations-Oriented Behaviors
(Cont.)
•
•
•
•
•
Consult with people on decisions affecting them
Allow people to determine the best way to do a task
Keep people informed about actions affecting them
Help resolve conflicts in a constructive way
Use symbols, ceremonies, rituals, and stories to build
team identity
• Recruit competent new members for the team or
organization
Change-Oriented Behaviors
• Monitor the external environment to detect threats and
opportunities
• Interpret events to explain the urgent need for change
• Study competitors and outsiders to get ideas for
improvements
• Envision exciting new possibilities for the organization
• Encourage people to view problems or opportunities in a
different way
• Develop innovative new strategies linked to core
competencies
Change-Oriented Behaviors (Cont.)
• Encourage and facilitate innovation and
entrepreneurship in the organization
• Encourage and facilitate collective learning in the team
or organization
• Experiment with new approaches for achieving
objectives
• Make symbolic changes that are consistent with a new
vision or strategy
• Encourage and facilitate efforts to implement major
change
• Announce and celebrate progress in implementing
change
• Influence outsiders to support change and negotiate
agreements with them
Comparison of Recent Taxonomies
Specific Task Behaviors
•
Action Planning
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Identify necessary action steps
Identify the optimal sequence of action steps
Estimate the time needed to carry out each action
step
Determine starting times and deadlines for each
action step
Estimate the cost of each action step
Determine who will be accountable for each action
step
Develop procedures for monitoring progress
Specific Task Behaviors (cont.)
Clarifying Roles and Objectives
•
Defining Job Responsibilities
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–
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•
Assigning Work
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•
Explain the important job responsibilities
Clarify the person’s scope of authority
Explain how the job relates to the mission of the unit
Explain important policies, rules, and requirements
Clearly explain the assignment
Explain the reasons for an assignment
Clarify priorities and deadlines
Check for comprehension
Setting Performance Goals
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–
–
–
Set goals for relevant aspects of performance
Set goals that are clear and specific
Set goals that are challenging but realistic
Set a target date for attainment of each goal
Specific Relations Behaviors
Guidelines for Supporting
Specific Relations Behaviors
Guidelines for Coaching
Specific Relations Behaviors
Guidelines for Mentoring
Specific Relations Behaviors
Guidelines for Recognizing
The Nature of Managerial Work
Learning Objectives
• Understand what methods have been used to
study managerial work
• Understand the typical activity patterns for
people in managerial positions
• Understand the different roles required for
managers and how they are changing
Learning Objectives (Cont.)
• Understand how managerial roles and activities
are affected by aspects of the situation
• Understand how managers cope with the
demands, constraints, and choices confronting
them
• Understand the limitations of descriptive
research on managerial activities
• Understand how managers can make effective
use of their time
Typical Activity Patterns in Managerial Work
•
•
•
•
Pace of work is hectic and unrelenting
Content of work is varied and fragmented
Many activities are reactive
Interactions often involve peers and outsiders
Typical Activity Patterns in Managerial Work
(Cont.)
• Many interactions involve oral communication
• Decision processes are disorderly and political
• Most planning is informal and adaptive
The Content of Managerial Work
• Job description research
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Supervising
Planning and organizing
Decision making
Monitoring indicators
Controlling
Representing
Coordinating
Consulting
Administering
Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles
Role Conflicts
•
•
•
•
Role senders
Role expectations
Conflicting demands
Perceptions of role requirements
Unique Role Requirements
Stewart (1967, 1976, 1982)
• Demands – required duties, activities, and
responsibilities
• Constraints – limiting characteristics of the organization
and external environment
• Choices – activities that a manager may do but is not
required to do
Unique Role Requirements
Situational Determinants
• Pattern of relationships
• Work patterns
• Exposure
Research on Situational Determinants
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•
•
•
•
Level of management
Size of organizational unit
Lateral interdependence
Crisis situation
Stage in the organizational life cycle
Changes in the Nature of Managerial Work
•
•
•
•
•
Economics, politics, and society
Globalization
New computer and telecommunications technology
Structure of organizations
Outsourcing and just-in-time inventories
Managerial Activities
Applications for Managers
Guidelines for Managing Time
•
•
•
•
•
Understand the reasons for demands and constraints
Expand the range of choices
Determine what you want to accomplish
Analyze how to use your time
Plan daily and weekly activities
Applications for Managers
Guidelines for Managing Time (Cont.)
•
•
•
•
Avoid unnecessary activities
Conquer procrastination
Take advantage of reactive activities
Make time for reflective planning
Applications for Managers
Guidelines for Problem Solving
•
•
•
•
Identify important problems that can be solved
Look for connections among problems
Experiment with innovative solutions
Take decisive action to deal with crises