Theoretical and Measurement Issues in Trait Psychology
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Looking for universal personality traits!
How many personality traits exist?
How do we classify these personality traits?
How do we measure these traits?
Are the traits stable over time?
Are the traits stable across situations?
How do the traits develop?
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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I.
Theoretical Issues in Measurement
II.
Measurement Issues
III.
Personality and Prediction: Application to
Workplace
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Consistency Over Time
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Consistency Across Situations
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Person-Situation Interaction
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Aggregation
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Test-Retest: traits are consistent over time
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As people age, traits do change
 Ex: Impulsiveness and Age
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If traits change with age, how can personality
be consistent over time?
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Rank Order
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Over time,
impulsiveness
decreased. But,
rank order was
maintained.
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Over time,
impulsiveness did
not change.
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Trait Psychologists → cross-situation
consistency
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Social Psychologists → situationism
 Hartshorne & May (1928), Mischel (1968)
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A Compromise
 Focus on Person-Situation Interaction
 Practice of Aggregation
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Personality + situation = behavior
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Strong Situation: Situations in which most
people react in a similar way
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Weak/Ambiguous Situation: personality has
its strongest influence
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Someone close to you passes away and you cry.
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Someone fails to hold the door for you and you
become very angry.
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Stanford Prison Experiment: As a guard, you
mistreat the prisoners.
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You see someone crying outside the psych
building and you ask if he/she needs help.
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Three additional ways in which personality
and situation interact to produce behavior
1. Selection
2. Evocation
3. Manipulation
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Selection:
 Tendency to choose or select situations in which
one finds oneself, as a function of personality
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Agreeable
Disagreeable
Career
Career
????
???
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Agreeable
Disagreeable
Career
Career
Military
Lawyer
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LiberalMinded
ConservativeMinded
MSNBC
Fox
NY
Times
Wall St.
Journal
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Selection:
 Tendency to choose or select situations in which
one finds oneself, as a function of personality
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Evocation:
 Certain personality traits may evoke specific
responses from others
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Insecure
Attachment
Style
Secure
Attachment
Style
Distance self
from partner
Seek
closeness to
partner
Partner
distances
self as well
Partner
expresses
love
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Selection:
 Tendency to choose or select situations in which
one finds oneself, as a function of personality
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Evocation:
 Certain personality traits may evoke specific
responses from others
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Manipulation:
 Various means by which people influence the
behavior of others; tactics of manipulation vary
with personality
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Altruistic
(concern for others)
Not Altruistic
(little concern for
others)
Steven
Steven
Match.com
Who Cares!
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Longer vs. shorter tests
Accounts for influence of situation
Represents average level of trait
We can’t use personality scores to
predict one person’s behavior in a
certain situation.
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Aggregate
Observer and
Self-Reports
Across
Situations
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
Across Time
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I’m interested in learning about the history
and politics of other countries.
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I would be quite bored by a visit to an art
gallery. (r)
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I would enjoy creating a work of art, such as a
novel, a song, or a painting.
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I.
Theoretical Issues in Measurement
II.
Measurement Issues
III.
Personality and Prediction: Application to
Workplace
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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A.
B.
C.
Yes!
No!
I don’t know.
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Carelessness
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Faking On Questionnaires
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Integrity Testing
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Infrequency scale embedded in test
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Manipulation Check: duplicate items spaced
far apart in the survey
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Acquiescence:
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Extreme responding:
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Social desirability:
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“Fake good”
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“Fake bad”
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Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale
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MMPI and PEN model contain lying scale.
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Distortion → get rid of it!
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Part of personality → keep it!
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Purpose is honesty
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Big Five: High C, High A, Low N
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HEXACO Honesty-Humility??
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I.
Theoretical Issues in Measurement
II.
Measurement Issues
III.
Personality and Prediction: Application to
Workplace
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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How can we use personality tests in the
workplace?
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Types of Measures Used in the Workplace
 MMPI
 Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI)
 Hogan Personality Inventory
 TAPAS
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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If you were an employer, why would you utilize
personality tests of your employees?
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If you were an employer, why would you utilize
personality tests of your employees?
Hiring/Firing –
screening
process
Promotion
Job Satisfaction
Match
personality to
job
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What are the personality tests screening or
selecting for?
1.
Categorize people within normal range of
personality functioning
2.
Identify psychopathology or abnormal levels
of personality
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Employers receive overall test scores
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1978: federal guidelines for the using tests in
employment
 Must predict job-specific performance
 Must be un-biased
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As a screening tool
 Ex: selection of police officers
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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI)
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California Personality Inventory (CPI)
16 Personality Factor (16PF) Questionnaire
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550 items
Detects mental illnesses / emotional
difficulties
For list of scales, visit:
http://www.upress.umn.edu/testdivision/mmpi-2/mmpi-2-scales
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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MMPI Clinical Scales
Brief Description
1 Hypochondriasis
Preoccupation with the body and concomitant fears of
illness.; unrealistic health fear
2 Depression
Poor morale, lack of hope in the future, general
dissatisfaction with one's own life.
3 Hysteria
Involuntary psychogenic loss or disorder of function.
Ex: false pregnancy; paralysis
4 Psychopathic Deviate
Social deviance or amorality; lack or reduced conscience
5 MasculinityFemininity
Feminine interests and attitudes.
6 Paranoia
Paranoid symptoms such as feelings of persecution,
delusion, grandiose self concepts, etc.
7 Psychasthenia
Obsessive-Compulsive (Psychasthenia); Anxiety;
rumination
8 Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia; serious though disorder; hallucinations
9 Hypomania
Elevated mood, accelerated speech & motor activity,
flights of ideas.
0 Social Introversion
Withdrawal from social contacts; shyness
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Validity Scales
Description
Cannot Say
Scale
Simple frequency of the number of items omitted or marked both
true and false. Large numbers of missing items call the scores on
all other scales into question.
L Scale
(Lie Scale)
Assesses naive or unsophisticated attempts by people to present
themselves in an overly favorable light.
Ex: "I do not read every editorial in the newspaper every day."
F Scale
This is a deviant, or rare response scale. The approach was to look
at items which are rarely endorsed by normal people. If less than
10% of the normals endorse the item, but you do, your F count
goes up (“red flag”)
K Scale
Assesses more subtle distortion of response, particularly clinically
defensive responses. High K people give scores on other scales
which are too low. K is used to boost the scores on other scales. K
Scale developed by comparing the responses of a group of people
who were known to be clinically deviant but who produced normal
MMPI profiles with a group of normal people who produced normal
MMPI profiles (no evidence of psychopathology in both).
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A.
B.
C.
D.
Carelessness
Faking
Social Desirability
Extreme Responding
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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What scale would be most
appropriate for use in
employee selection?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Schizophrenia
Masculinity – Femininity
Psychopathic Deviate
Social Introversion
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Jung’s Theory of Psychological
Types
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Extraverted and Introverted
Types
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Further divided into Sensation,
Intuiting, Thinking, Feeling
types
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For more information:
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ju
ng/types.htm
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Attitudes
 Extraversion & Introversion
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Functions
 2 Perceiving Functions: Sensing and Intuition
 2 Judging Functions: Thinking and Feeling
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Extraversion (E)
Introversion (I)
Draws energy from the outside;
involved with people; likes action
and activity
Draws energy from internal
words of thoughts and ideas.
Sensing (S)
iNtuition (N)
Prefers taking in information
Prefers information derived from a
through all five senses; attends to “sixth sense”; notices what’s possible
what actually exists
rather than what is
Thinking (T)
Feeling (F)
Prefers logic, organization, and
clean objective structure
Prefers a person- and value-oriented
way of processing information
Judging (J)
Perceiving (P)
Prefers living a well-ordered and
controlled life
Prefers to live spontaneously, with
room for flexible spur-of-the –moment
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activities
SENSING:
INTUITION:
FOCUS ON TAKING IN
INTERPRET AND ADD MEANING
BASIC INFORMATION
TO BASIC INFORMATION
“Paying the most attention to
“Paying attention to physical
impressions or the meaning and
reality, what I see, hear, touch,
patterns of the information I get. I
would rather learn by thinking a
taste, and smell. I’m concerned
problem through than by hands-on
with what is actual, present,
experience. I’m interested in new
current, and real. I notice facts
things and what might be possible,
so that I think more about the future
and I remember details that are
than the past. I like to work with
important to me. I like to see the
symbols or abstract theories, even if I
practical use of things and learn
don’t know how I will use them. I
remember events more as an
best when I see how to use what
impression of what it was like than as
I’m learning. Experience speaks
actual facts or details of what
happened”
to me louder than words.”
Taken from http://myersbriggs.org
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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THINKING:
WHEN MAKING DECISIONS,
LOOK AT
LOGIC/CONSISTENCY
“When I make a decision, I like to
find the basic truth or principle to
be applied, regardless of the
specific situation involved. I like
to analyze pros and cons, and
then be consistent and logical in
deciding. I try to be impersonal,
so I won’t let my personal wishes-or other people’s wishes-influence me.”
FEELING:
WHEN MAKING DECISIONS,
LOOK AT PEOPLE/SPECIAL
CIRCUMSTANCES
“I believe I can make the best
decisions by weighing what people
care about and the points-of-view of
persons involved in a situation. I am
concerned with values and what is
the best for the people involved. I like
to do whatever will establish or
maintain harmony. In my
relationships, I appear caring, warm,
and tactful.”
Taken from http://myersbriggs.org
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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JUDGING;
PREFER TO DECIDE THINGS
“I use my decision-making
(Judging) preference (whether
it is Thinking or Feeling) in my
outer life. To others, I seem to
prefer a planned or orderly
way of life, like to have things
settled and organized, feel
more comfortable when
decisions are made, and like to
bring life under control as
much as possible.”
PERCEIVING:
PREFER TO STAY OPEN TO NEW
INFORMATION/OPTIONS
“I use my perceiving function
(whether it is Sensing or
Intuition) in my outer life. To
others, I seem to prefer a
flexible and spontaneous way
of life, and I like to understand
and adapt to the world rather
than organize it. Others see
me staying open to new
experiences and information.”
Taken from http://myersbriggs.org
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Most Common Preferences
Extraversion
49.3%
Introversion
50.7%
Sensing
73.3%
iNtuition
26.7%
Thinking
40.2%
Feeling
59.8%
Judging
54.1%
Perceiving
45.9%
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ISTJ
ISFJ
INFJ
INTJ
ISTP
ISFP
INFP
INTP
ESTP
ESFP
ENFP
ENTP
ESTJ
ESFJ
ENFJ
ENTJ
For a description of your type:
http://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personalitytype/mbti-basics/the-16-mbti-types.asp#INFJ
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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ISTJ
ISFJ
INFJ
INTJ
11.6%
13.8%
1.5%
2.1%
ISTP
ISFP
INFP
INTP
5.4%
8.8%
4.4%
3.3%
ESTP
ESFP
ENFP
ENTP
4.3%
8.5%
8.1%
3.2%
ESTJ
ESFJ
ENFJ
ENTJ
8.7%
12.3%
2.5%
1.8%
For a description of your type: http://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personalitytype/mbti-basics/the-16-mbti-types.asp#INFJ
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MBTI
Big Five (NEO-PI-R)
E
O
A
C
N
E-I
-.74
.03
-.03
.08
.16
S-N
.10
.72
.04
-.15
-.06
T-F
.19
.02
.44
-.15
.06
J-P
.15
.30
-.06
-.49
.11
(McCrae & Costa, 1989)
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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ITEM
You are almost never late for your appointments
You like to be engaged in an active and fast-paced
job
You enjoy having a wide circle of acquaintances
YES
NO
YES
NO
YES
NO
You feel involved when watching TV soaps
You are usually the first to react to a sudden event,
such as
the telephone ringing or unexpected question
YES
NO
YES
NO
YES
NO
You are more interested in a general idea than in the
details of its realization
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50% above = Extraversion
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50% below = Introversion
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Introverted
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
Extraverted
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Introversion
Neutral / Middle
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
Extraversion
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Where do most people
score on introversionextraversion?
Introversion
1-SD
3 – 3.5
N=μ
5-SA
Extraversion
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Consistency Over Time?
Consistency Across Situations?
Person-Situation Interaction?
Aggregation?
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Carelessness?
Faking On Questionnaires?
Integrity Testing?
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Reliability?
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Validity?
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Ball State University Career Services
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Personnel Selection
Selecting Your
Career / Academic
Major
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Can we use personality
tests in the workforce?
Hogan
Personality
Inventory!
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Based on Big Five dimensions relevant to
business settings
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Reliable and Valid – Big Five
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Predicts:
 How well people fit into business cultures
 Occupational performance in 200 work categories
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7 Primary Scales
6 Occupational Scales
Adjustment: self-confidence, self-esteem,
and composure under pressure. Opposite of
neuroticism
Service Orientation: being attentive,
pleasant, and courteous to customers
Ambition: initiative, competitiveness, and
desire for leadership roles.
Stress Tolerance: being able to handle stress,
remaining even-tempered and calm under fire
Sociability: extraversion, gregariousness, and
need for social interaction.
Reliability: honesty, integrity, and positive
organizational citizenship
Interpersonal Sensitivity: warmth, charm,
and ability to maintain good relationships
Clerical Potential: following directions,
attending to detail, and communicating
clearly.
Prudence: self-discipline, responsibility,
conscientiousness
Sales Potential: energy, social skills, and
ability to solve customers’ problems
Inquisitiveness: imagination, curiosity, vision,
creative potential
Managerial Potential: leadership ability,
planning, and decision-making skills
Learning Approach: enjoying learning,
staying current on business and technical
matters.
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
Employees hired based on HPI (vs not):
 20% more annual commissions
 32% more annual volume in dollars obtained
 42% more annual trades
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For further information:
http://www.hoganassessments.com
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Based on Big Five model
Army Selection
Classification Decisions
Retention
Validated on Air Force members
Scale is specific to a situation – military
(Drawgow et al., 2012)
© 2015 M. Guthrie Yarwood
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Traits psychologists assume that people will be relatively
constant over time and across situations in behaviors
If situation is weak/ambiguous, then personality determines
behavior!

Personality traits refer to the average tendencies in behavior

Careless, Faking, Social Desirability, Extreme Responding all
contribute to biased results

DON’T USE THE MBTI TO MAKE LIFE DECISIONS!
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