Chapter One:Speaking in Public
Conversation vs. Public Speaking
Controlling Nervousness
Speech Model
Conversation vs. Public Speaking
BOTH
PUBLIC SPEAKING
• Thoughts organized
• Speech more highly
logically
• Content & delivery
tailored to audience
• Delivered for
maximum impact
organized
• Language more
formal
• Different delivery
Controlling Nervousness
•
•
•
•
•
Ask questions in classes - speaking skills
Think positively – confident “self-talk “
Rehearse until automatic – eye contact
Visualize – see positive audience response
Don’t expect perfection – just do your best
Transactional Speech Model
• Speaker (Enc/Dec)
• Receiver (Enc/Dec)
• Message
• Channel
• Feedback
• Situation
• Interference
S
I
R
(M)
Channel
F
S
Ch.2 Ethics
• Define ethics
-branch of philosophy studying right & wrong
• Public speakers need strong ethics
-public speaking is a form of power
• Guidelines for speechmaking &
listening
• Plagiarism
Ethics of Speaking
•
•
•
•
•
Have ethical speech goal
Be fully prepared
Be honest
Avoid abusive language
Use ethics ALL the time
(not just when convenient)
Ethics of Listening
• Be respectful of all in the room
• Avoid prejudging speakers
• Free and open expression of ideas
Plagiarism
• Defined: Presenting another’s ideas or
words as your own.
3 Types:
• Global-presenting another person’s entire
speech as your own
Hearing vs. Listening
• Patchwork-patching together the parts of
your speech by copying several sources
• Incremental-failing to give credit for any
quotes/paraphrases borrowed (not citing)
Ch. 3 Listening
Hearing vs. Listening
Importance for Speechmaking
4 Types of Listening
4 Causes of Poor Listening
Improving Listening
Differences:
Hearing – physical (sound waves)
Listening – mental (attending & making
sense
Listening: Importance
• Most of us listen poorly
• Listening is needed
– on the job
– at school
– in all aspects of life
• Listening improves speaking skills
4 Types of Listening
1. Appreciative
(to enjoy- music, comedy, etc.)
2. Empathic
(for emotional support)
3. Comprehensive
(to understand)
4. Critical
(to evaluate-reasoning, evidence, facts)
4 Causes of Poor Listening
1. Not concentrating
(gap time)
2. Listening too hard
(for too much detail)
3. Jumping to conclusions
(assuming w/o hearing entire message)
4. Focusing on delivery/appearance
(judging the person not the message)
7 Ways to Improve Listening
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Take it seriously
Listen actively
Resist distractions
Avoid judging looks or mannerisms
Suspend judgments until after over
Focus on ideas, evidence, & techniques to use
Take notes-main ideas & support
Ch. 8 The Body of the Speech
Four Introduction Goals
•
•
•
•
Attention getter
Hook - relate to audience.Why listen?
Clear Thesis Statement
Preview
Ch. 10 Conclusions
• Restate thesis and main points
• Tie back to Introduction
• Close it strongly
Ch. 4 Selecting a Topic and
Purpose
• 4 Ways to Brainstorm
• General vs. Specific Purpose Statements
Specific Purpose vs. Central Idea
Writing Purpose Statements & Central Ideas
Choosing a Topic
Consider speech directions & choose ASAP!
Brainstorming - Listing what comes to
mind w/o judgment, then narrowing
-Inventory your skills interests, experiences
-Cluster possible topics into categories
-Browse through materials (reference room)
-Use search engines on computer
General vs. Specific Purpose
• General:To inform (teach)
Specific: To inform my audience of three types of
solar heating
General:To persuade (advocate)
Specific:To persuade my audience that solar
heating is better than fossil fuel heating systems
:To persuade my audience to use solar heating in
their homes
Central Idea
• Clarifies specific purpose
• Concise statement sums up what you expect to say
• A thesis with subject & main points
(reveals more than the specific purpose)
• Usually written late in preparation process
Use:
• Full sentence
• No Questions
• No figurative language
• Not vague/too general
Ch. 5 Audience Analysis
Audience Centered
Egocentric audiences
Demographic traits
Situational traits
Audience analysis of class
Audience adaptation
Be Audience Centered
• Primary purpose: to get desired response
• Ask: To whom am I speaking?
What do I want them to know?
How can I write & present this for that
aim?
• Emphasize common values, goals, experiences
Appeal to Egocentric Tendency
They listen selectively to what affects them,
so use psychology on them!
• Tell them how it affects in several ways
• Make them want to listen
- vivid examples, clear language, transitions, etc.
• Relate it to what they already know/believe
Audience Demographics
• Use ethically-avoid stereotyping!
• Combine with situational analysis
• Adapt to traits which can be counted:
age
gender
education
job
residence
economics
racial, ethnic & cultural backgrounds
sexual orientation
religious views, group memberships
intelligence
student issues, etc.
Ch. 6 Gathering Materials
Ch. 7 Supporting Ideas
Ch. 14 Informative Speaking
• Importance
• Types of Informative
Speeches
• Organization
• Criteria
• 5 Guidelines or Tips
Importance
• You will need to clearly give information
the rest of your life!
• Ability to convey knowledge effectively
will help you in a wide range of
situations:
• At work
• In personal and social relationships
• When doing any business
Types of Informative Speeches
• Objects: anything visible, tangible and
stable in form (The Great Pyramid of
Egypt)
• Processes: a series of actions leading to a
result (How to Study for a Test, etc.)
• Events: anything which happens or is
regarded as happening (The Holocaust)
• Concepts-Beliefs, theories, ideas, principles
(Gravity, Buddhism, etc.)
Organizing Informative Speeches
• Objects: Chronological (the history of a
place or person), spatial (Grand Canyon), or
topical (Features of Digital Cameras)
• Processes: Usually Chronological (How the
Grand Canyon was Formed) and Topical
(Methods Used by Stage Magicians)
• Events: Chronological ( The History of the
Women’s Movement), Causal (The Sinking
of the Titanic), Topical (Basic Pilates
Exercises)
Criteria for Informative
Speaking
• 3 criteria for effective informative
speaking:
• Be accurate
• Be clear
• Make it meaningful & interesting to
the audience
Five Guidelines
Don’t over or underestimate audience knowledge
Relate it directly to your audience-work at it!
Avoid being too technical---it’s a general audience
Avoid abstractions
1)
2)
3)
4)
•
•
•
•
Use specific details
Use colorful, vivid descriptions
Use familiar comparisons to draw in your audience
Use contrast in concrete terms to give perspective
5) Personalize ideas!
Use personal illustrations
Dramatize ideas in human terms when possible
Use examples (real or hypothetical) that personalize ideas
Ch. 11 Using Language
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Important
Denotation vs. Connotation
Accurate
Clear
Vivid
Appropriate
Inclusive
Language is important
• Gives meaning to events
– creates our reality
Not neutral:
- determines many reactions
• Closely linked to thinking:
– Right word =right idea
• Like tools:
– right word for right job
Denotation vs. Connotation
• Denotation=precise, literal, objective
– Dictionary definition
– The same for all persons
• Connotation=variable, figurative, subjective
– Suggestion, implication
– Can be different for each person
Use Language Accurately
• Shades of meaning matter:
Don’t use if not sure of meaning; look it up!
Develop a plan to improve vocabulary
Will pay off “big time” in the future
Use Language Clearly
Meaning must be instantly clear to listeners:
• Use familiar words- esp. if technical topic
• Use concrete words
• Eliminate clutter (lean and lively)
Use Vivid Language
• Use imagery (create a mental picture w/ words)
– Concrete, sensory words (pull listeners in)
– Simile (compare unlike things using like or as)
“Her voice was as soft as a gentle breeze.”
– Metaphor (compare unlike things w/o like or as)
“Her voice was a gentle breeze.”
• Use rhythm: arranging words for interesting sounds
–
–
–
–
Parallelism - similar arrangement of words/phrases/ sentences
Repetition - same words/phrases at begin. or end of next sentence
Alliteration - same begin.consonant sound in close or next word
Antithesis – contrasting ideas (usually parallel structure)
Use Language Appropriately
• For occasion – adjust to formality and etiquette
• For audience - avoid possible offensive or confusing
language
– Profanity/off-color language ( not suitable in a formal setting)
– Technical jargon (not suitable for a general audience)
– Name calling or any abusive language
• For topic – Choose language by type of speech
– informative speech : straightforward, descriptive language
- Commemoration : special devices (metaphor, alliteration, antithesis)
- Persuasion : factual but also emotional appeals
• For speaker – Be yourself at your best, not your worst
– Not too casual and never offensive
Use Inclusive Language
•
Respect ALL groups
–
–
•
Do not stereotype, demean or patronize
Be ethical, accurate, and audience-centered
For inclusive language AVOID
1)
2)
3)
4)
Identifying jobs and social roles by gender
The generic “he” or “man” (use plurals instead)
Using names that groups use only for themselves
Identifying personal traits unrelated to the topic
Ch. 12 Delivery
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Importance of good delivery
Characteristics of good delivery
Four methods of delivery
Eight aspects of voice
Four aspects of movement
Practicing delivery
Question/Answer sessions
Importance of Good Delivery
• Good delivery: makes or breaks a speech!
– Using nonverbal communication (voice and body)
conveys your message
• Good delivery is an art!
– It is clear, interesting, and not distracting
– It has formality & good conversational qualities:
energy
eye contact
vocal and physical expression
directness
Methods of Delivery
1) Manuscript or verbatim (word for word)
-for strict time limits (the news) and accuracy (State of the Union)
2) Memorized
- only when very short; known so well focus can be communicating
rather than remembering
3) Impromptu
- little or no preparation
- use a formula (state topic, the point you want to make, enough
support to prove it, summarize)
4) Extemporaneous (in class!)
- Prepared and practiced in advance
-from notes but wording can change
-advantages: more conversational, natural, better eye contact.
Vocal Control
1)
2)
3)
4)
Adjust volume for room and audience
Adjust pitch to create interest/avoid dullness
Adjust rate for voice, mood of speech, audience and occasion
Use pauses for impact-to signal end of thought, let idea sink in,
for dramatic effect . AVOID vocal pauses (um, like, you know, well, etc.)!
5) Use vocal variety-in the above ways to be dynamic not dull
6) Pronunciation –errors reduce credibility. Check dictionary or with
others so rehearsing is correct.
7) Articulate carefully – each speech sound distinctly. Don’t be
lazy! Diagnose errors then practice. (The college has free services here.)
8) Dialects
(Accents, grammar patterns, vocabulary for region
or ethnic group) - neither right nor wrong, but heavy use can cause
problems if audience does not share it.
Physical Delivery
• Four Aspects of Bodily Action
1. Appearance matters!
2. Movement- matters before during & after speech, avoid
distracting moves
3. Gestures- plan for impact, don’t distract, be natural, adapt to
audience and occasion
4. Eye Contact
Creates a bond w/ audience
Gets attention & credibility
Helps audience perceive you as sincere, honest, comfortable
Aids your response to audience feedback during speech
Improving Delivery
1. Say aloud the preparation outline
- see if it sounds good, clarify and revise
2. Prepare speaking outline
- (only key words/phrases in same format)
3. Practice aloud with your speaker outline
now, just learn ideas and structure, not exact words
4. Polish
using mirror (nonverbal), tape (verbal) and other persons (last)
5. Dress rehearse in as similar a situation as possible
- empty class, w/visual aids, an audience if possible
Start early to reduce tension and be in control!
Answering Audience ?s If Needed
 ?s can impact the audience as much as the speech
 Think of poss. ?s and answers, practicing aloud
 Managing a ?/A session
 Find out if there will be ?/A period.
 Stay positive, calm and open. ?s show interest in your topic,
are a chance to clarify and further impress audience.
 Listen carefully to each ?, and ask for clarification if needed so
you can answer.
 Direct answers to entire audience (not just the one who asked),
and restate each ? Before answering.
 Be honest and straightforward. Say if you don’t know,offer to
find out, but DON”T bluff!
 Don’t waste time. Stay on track, avoid debating, and wrap up
by thanking audience for their attention IF there is a ?/a
period.
Ch. 13 Visual Aids
•
•
•
•
Advantages of using
Types
Guidelines for creating
Use
Types of Visual Aids
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Objects
Models
Photographs
Drawings
Graphs
Charts
Video
Transparencies
Multimedia-problematic
Advantages of Visual Aids
 Stronger clarity
 More interest
 More retention of your message
 More credibility
 Improved persuasiveness
 Help to reduce speech fright
Types of Visuals
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Objects
Models
Photos
Drawings
Graphs
Charts
Video
Transparencies
Multimedia -avoid
Poster board is
safest!
• Follow directions for
• Size - Make sure details are large
enough to see easily in back of
the room
• Simplicity - uncluttered, clear,
(only what is needed)
• Words/numbers - use text
directions IF someone else can
see easily in back of classroom
• Fonts – only 2 in an aid (1=titles;
1= subtitles or text) Not fancy!
• Color (no pastels or neons)
– Limit the number of colors
– Contrasting colors help
differentiate
– Be consistent
– Use to highlight key points
Ch. 15 Speaking to Persuade
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Define
Importance
Ethics
Psychology
Propositions (or Questions) of Fact
Propositions (or Questions) of Value
Propositions (or Questions) of Policy
Importance of Persuasion
• Defined: The process of creating, reinforcing, or
changing belief or action (advocating)
-Get listeners to agree & perhaps act on it.
• Benefits all parts of your life
– Personal, community, career
– At least 26% of U.S. gross domestic product is jobs
related to persuasion
• The more you know, the better critical thinking to
evaluate daily persuasive choices. (1 M
commercials by age of 20)
Ethics of Persuasion
• As always, your goals and methods must be ethical. (A good person
speaking well)
• NO ethical shortcuts!
– Maintaining trust with audience is vital to credibility.
• Present evidence fairly & accurately.
– Learn all sides of issues & get facts straight.
– Don’t misrepresent sources, quote out of context, or pretend a few details
= the entire story.
• Language is powerful, so use it responsibly
– Base speech on facts and logic before appealing to emotions
Psychology of Persuasion
Controversial topics make audience analysis & adaptation more
demanding than just informing.
• Easier to explain than get agreement.
• Needs more research and preparation time
• You deal with audience knowledge of topic & attitudes,
so use strategy!
• Tailor message to audience values, attitudes and beliefs.
• Any move from opposed to agreement is persuasion.
• Some will not agree.
• Learn:
• how listeners process and respond to persuasive messages
• Your target audience
How Listeners Process Persuasion
• A mental give-and-take with the speaker
– A mental dialogue with the speaker
– Assessing credibility, delivery, support, language,
reasoning, and emotional appeals
• Especially when involved with topic & it’s related to their lives
• Anticipate possible objections & deal with them in
the speech.
The Target Audience
• Defined: The portion of the audience you most want to
persuade.
• Remember the ideas and feelings of entire audience,
but some already agree and some never will.
• You can use observation, interviews and questionnaires to
learn your target audience and the issues to discuss.
• Tailor the speech to fit their values and concerns
Questions (or Propositions) of Fact, Value, and
Policy
• Proposition of Fact: Provable
– About the truth or falsity of an assertion
– “Will a new President change our economy?” or “A new President
will change our economy.”
• Proposition of Value: A judgment
– About the worth, rightness, morality, etc. of an idea or action
“Raising taxes is right/wrong.”
• Question (or proposition) of Policy “Should/shouldn’t …”
– About whether or not a specific course of action should be taken
– “The War in Iraq should/should not end in 6 months.”
Speeches of Fact
• It must be a controversial topic.
• While informative speaking is nonpartisan
or impartial, persuasive speeches of Fact are
partisan, advocating one view of the factsthe speaker’s view.
• “UFO’s do exist.”
• Arrange topically by reasons or spatially
Propositions of Value
• Involves facts and beliefs about the facts, not just personal
opinion or taste
• Use controversial topic
• Not just stating beliefs, but stressing your position in light of
defined criteria for making a value judgment
– What are your standards for judgment?
• Justify your claim (opinion)!
– Show how your facts fit/don’t fit the standards to persuade
• Organize topically
– Usually
• List the standards (criteria) for judgment
• Then apply your facts to the standards
• Do NOT argue for or against action of any kind.
Propositions of Policy
•
•
•
If you say something should or should not be done, it’s arguing for or against a
policy
–
Either passive agreement or (immediate) action
Policy has 3 issues: Need, Plan, & Practicality
–
Prove a serious, widespread need. Speaker has burden of proof.
–
Describe major features of your plan.
–
Prove practicality.
• Plan solves the problem - A similar plan has worked elsewhere
• Does not creates new, more serious problems
Organizing:
–
when changing a policy, problem-solution or problem-cause-solution
order
–
If audience agrees problem exists, perhaps comparative advantages order
–
If you seek action from listeners, Monroe’s Motivated Sequence
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence
• This method follows the psychology of persuasion (human thinking)
• Attention: get attention and start relating to audience
• Need: Make them feel a need for change
– Prove a serious problem exists, and use strong support (statistics, examples,
testimony), related to audience’s values or vital interests. (so concerned, ready to
hear your solution)
• Satisfaction: Satisfy the need for a solution by giving a plan.
– Show how it will work.
– Give enough details so listeners can understand clearly.
• Visualization: Visualize plan’s benefits, using vivid imagery to show how
audience will profit.
– They should SEE how much better off they will be if we adopt plan or how much
worse if we don’t adopt it.
• Action: Say what you want them to do AND how to do it.
– Give address to write or e-mail; tell how or where to join an organization.
– Conclude with final emotional appeal to reinforce a commitment to act
Methods of Persuasion
• Audience accepts ideas due to:
– Credibility (competence and character)
• Can enhance during the speech with establishing common ground, telling
qualifications to speak, and delivering well.
– Evidence
• Anticipate doubts and answer them with evidence which is new, very specific,
and from credible sources, saying what it proves.
– Reasoning
• Inductive -specific to general
• Deductive-from principle to a particular conclusion
• Causal-show relationship between causes and effects
• Analogy-In two cases, if it is true for one, it is true for the other.
• AVOID FALLACIES: Hasty generalization, false cause, invalid analogy, red
herring, ad hominem, and either-or, bandwagon, and slippery slope
– Emotional appeals
• Use emotional language
• Use vivid, rich examples which personalize ideas & draw in listeners
• Feel emotion yourself and use sincerity and conviction in your voice
• Never substitute emotional appeals for evidence or reasoning
- Usually need emotional appeal for policy speeches
• Ethics and emotion
-use ethical goals, speak honestly, and avoid all abusive language
Methods: Fallacies-Errors in Reasoning
• Hasty generalization: (inductive) concludes w/o enough evidence
• “I took a basic speech class, so I should be paid to speak in public.”
• False cause: (causal reasoning) assumes because an event follows another
•
one, it must be caused by it
• “We won because we’re wearing new uniforms!”
Invalid analogy: things being compared are not essentially alike
• “You’ll win Miss America because you won Miss Hamburger in your home
town.”
• Red Herring: an irrelevant issue diverts attention from subject being discussed
• “How can you talk about global warming when people are starving?”
• Ad Hominem: attacks the person rather than the real issue
• “Are we going to believe someone who smoked marijuana when he was 12?”
• Either-Or: (false dilemma-forces 2 alternatives when more than 2 exist
• “We must either vote for her or admit we are racist!”
• Bandwagon: Anything popular is good, correct, desirable
• “He must be right. After all, he was elected.”
• Slippery Slope: taking one step will lead to disaster
• “If we give in on even one demand in negotiations, they will never pay us a raise in the
future.”
Ch. 17 Occasional Speaking
•
•
•
•
•
Introduction Speeches
Presentation Speeches
Acceptance Speeches
Commemorative Speeches
After-Dinner Speeches
Occasional Speaking cont.
• Examples:
– Weddings, funerals, dedications, award
ceremonies, retirements, graduations, etc.
Introduction speeches
• These speeches aim to fit the needs of a special occasion.
• Speech of Introduction-introduces the main speaker to the audience by
• Tips:
–
–
–
–
building enthusiasm for the speaker and his/her topic, and by
creating a welcoming climate.
Be brief (The audience came to hear the MAIN speaker.)
Be accurate (Check for accuracy with the speaker, esp. pronunciation)
Adapt to the occasion (level of formality)
Adapt to the speaker (Don’t overpraise or reveal things in poor taste from the
speaker’s point of view.)
– Adapt to the audience (Make this aud. want to hear this speaker on this
subject. If audience knows speaker, less credibility will need to be built for the
speaker. Give what each audience wants to hear-know your audience. One
speaker for 2 audiences can be 2 speeches of introduction.)
– Create a sense of anticipation (Usually you will save the name for last, or
create interest by giving facts not known, esp. related to the topic.
PRACTICE until it can be delivered extemporaneously with sincerity and
enthusiasm.)
Speeches of Presentation
• These speeches present a gift, award or some other
public recognition.
• Be brief: from a few lines to 4 or 5 minutes in
length.
• Adapt to your audience and occasion
– Focus on achievements related to award in
meaningful way for your audience
• May need to:
– explain purpose of the award if not known
– praise the losers if a public competition
Speeches of Acceptance
• It gives thanks for a gift, award, or other
•
•
•
•
public recognition.
Be brief: Learn ahead if possible the
expected time.
Be humble: Thank those giving it and those
who helped you gain it.
Be gracious: Be sincerely grateful. Don’t
tell them you don’t deserve it!
Adapt formality and attitude to audience
and occasion
Commemorative Speeches
• Aim: pay tribute to person, group, idea, or
•
•
•
•
•
institution
Speeches of praise or celebration, using
creative language to express feelings & stir
sentiment that inspires audience to
respect/admire the subject
Go for dignity, meaning, and honest emotion
Create imagery and rhythm with language
Avoid clichés and trite phrases
Review Language Chapter: Metaphor, simile,
parallelism, repetition, antithesis and
alliteration
Commemorative
• Say why the subject is praiseworthy
– Give some history of the person or institution.
– Use examples, testimony and even statistics to
inspire. (It’s not just informative.)
After-Dinner Speeches
•
•
•
•
Also called Speech to Entertain
Given after any meal, any time of day
Can be formal or casual setting
Lighter in tone than informative or persuasive, it
makes a serious point about a serious topic, but in
a lighthearted manner. “To entertain my audience
by showing them the ridiculous extremes of
school Zero Tolerance policies…”
Speech to Entertain, cont.
• Audience wants good-natured speech, stimulating
their imaginations by treating topic in a new way
– Not technical or argumentative
– Support chosen primarily for entertainment
• Requires careful preparation and organization with
a central theme and serious point about it.
• Humor can be here, but not needed. It’s not a
string of jokes or stand up comedy act!
• Interesting support, creative language and clever
phrasing will succeed. Don’t go for laughs!