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Your audience consists of the people who
would read your paper.
In order to be effectively persuasive, we need
to be able to adapt to our audience.
Consider the following topic:
The Effects of Smoking.
What types of readers would read an article on
this topic?
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From your list, you may have noticed that you
perhaps listed people who feel smoking should
be stopped (people affected by smoking) and
people who would like smoking to continue
(tobacco companies).
Depending on the stand the writer takes, these
two types of audience members could prove to
be difficult for the writer to persuade.
What we’ve noticed is that readers may be
categorized by how much they are likely to
agree with the writer.
Aside from personal demographics, audiences can
be divided up into three categories:
 Friendly (those in agreement with or likely to be in
agreement with the writer’s position)
 Neutral (those who are unsure but could be
persuaded with some work)
 Hostile (those who oppose or are likely to oppose
the writer’s position)
When we write arguments, we need to assume that
each of these types of readers is interested in what
we have to say. We therefore need to make efforts
to appeal to each of these types of audience
members.
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Read “The Bogus ‘Science’ of Secondhand Smoke”
in you Dialogues textbook (pages 98-99).
Try to determine what audience or audiences this
writer is trying to appeal to.
If this writer’s essay were read by friendly, neutral,
and hostile readers, how well do you think each of
these readers would be persuaded? Why do you
think that?
Form groups of 3-4 people and discuss your
answers then share what your group’s ideas with
the class.
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One of the most effective ways of persuading
hostile readers is through addressing
viewpoints that oppose your position. This
doesn’t mean that you should contradict
yourself. It does mean that by doing this, you
can show how opposing ideas, even though
they may be valid, aren’t as convincing as your
own.
Doing this is called rebutting your opponent’s
arguments and if handled correctly, it can
greatly improve your writing.
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A rebuttal paragraph in an essay basically has
two parts.
The first part simply describes your opponent’s
position or objection accurately.
The second part then explains why this idea
isn’t as good as your idea.
Consider the following rebuttal paragraph
from the essay on organic food from your
Quick Access book.
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Some critics point out that organic products
aren’t more nutritious than regular ones.
Physician Sanjay Gupta, for example, finds the
medical evidence for nutritional examples
“thin” (60). The Tufts University Health and
Nutrition Letter also reports that the research on
nutritional benefits is mixed, with one
important study showing “no overall
differences” (“Is Organic” 8).
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Nutritional value, which includes qualities such as
vitamins and other beneficial substances, is a
different measure than food safety. At this point, it
seems that nutrition alone is not a sufficient reason
to buy organic foods. Perhaps future research will
prove otherwise; a 2007 study, for example,
showed that organically raised tomatoes have
higher levels of flavonoids, nutrients that have
many health benefits (Mitchell). In the meantime,
however, environmental quality and, most
importantly, avoiding chemicals remain
convincing reasons to purchase organic food, even
if the same cannot yet be claimed for nutrition.
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Notice how the example described the
opponent’s argument and even though it was
valid, still showed that the writer’s idea of
buying organic food was better.
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Take a look at your current version of your research paper.
Outline the argument (thesis and reasons) that you have
thus far.
Pair up with a partner.
Read your basic argument to your partner. Don’t stop until
you have read the whole thing. Your partner should not
interrupt you.
As you are reading your argument, your partner should be
imagining what someone who disagrees with your thesis
might say and what arguments against your thesis he or she
might offer.
Your partner should, after you are finished, State the
objections to your argument that he or she has thought up.
Respond to each of these objections.
When finished, switch roles.
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When you are finished with the exercise,
choose the best objections that you can think of
that someone opposing your thesis would
mention.
Write each of these down.
Select one and write a rebuttal paragraph in
which you describe the objection and then
argue against it.
Save this to aid you in drafting the next version
of your paper for Friday.