Cities
of Vesuvius
POMPEII
&
HERCULANEUM
LOCAL POLITICAL LIFE
Cities of Vesuvius
Terms and Concepts
Aediles
Two lower ranking magistrates of Pompeii
Basilica
Lawcourt
Beneficia
Benefits
Cognomen
Family name
Comitia
Voting Assembly of citizens – used to vote for the aediles &
duumviri.
Comitium
Voting hall
Curiales / Decuriones
Members of the council
Cursus honorum
Sequence of offices / ladder of political advancement
Decuriones
Councillors
Defensor coloniae
A distinguished local person who looked after the legal interests
of the colony
Duumvir/duovir
One of two officers or magistrates jointly exercising the same
public function.
Duumviri iure dicundo
The two men fir administering justice
Epigraphic
Study of inscriptions or writing
Fasces
Bundles of rods
Flamen
Priest assigned to a state-supported god or goddess
Gens nomen
Clan name
Lectio
Census
Haruspex
diviner
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Cities of Vesuvius
Lex Iulia Municipalis
Law of Julius Caesar (45BC)
Lex Petronia
Law of the early 1st C AD that allowed for the legal appointment
of a Prefect for the Administration of Justice in an emergency
Libraries
Copyist
Lictores
Two guards
Municipium
The second highest ranking Roman city.
Praecox
herald
Praefectus
Extraordinary magistracy
Praenomen
Personal nane
Princeps
‘first man of the colony’ – an outstanding individual
Programmata
Election slogans
Quinquennalis
In the fifth year
Ordo decurionum
Town council
Scriptores
Professional sign painters
Tibicen
Flute player
Viatores
Two messengers
Vici
Wards that the city of Pompeii was divided into that
served as voting districts
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Cities of Vesuvius
Roman Society – Pompeii & Herculaneum:
Political Life
Pompeii, as a Roman colony since the Social war of 80
BC, was a self-administering municipality. Its form of
local government followed the standard rules laid down
in a law of Julius Caesar, the Lex Iulia Municipalis
(45BC), and subsequent legislation. The legislation
specified both how a town council (ordo decurionum)
would be established and how councillors (decuriones),
would be chosen. It set out how local magistrates, the
principal town officials, would be elected by the Roman
citizens in a township such as the Colonia Veneria
Cornelia Pompeianorum. Herculaneum was governed in
the same manner as a municipum, with its own town
council and elected officials.
Figure 1.10 Pompeii Political Life
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Cities of Vesuvius
MAGISTRATES AT POMPEII
Office
Duumviri iyre
dicundo
Number
Length of
office
Authority
Elected by
2
One Year
Potestas
The people
(populous) each year
in an electoral
assembly (comita)
Official power
Two men for the
Administration
of Justice
Candidates must have
been aediles first
Functions
Judicial:
Presided in court
Administrative:
Presided over the
Town Council
Financial:
Oversight of
revenues, Taxation
Every 5th year
called:
Revision of
citizenship and
council rolls
Quinquennales
2
Five yearly men
Aediles
One Year every 5
years
Potestas
2
One Year
Potestas
The people
(populous) each year
in an electoral
assembly (comita)
1
Short period
Potestas
Appointed by the
Town Council
(curia) in an
emergency
Censorial power
Care of temples,
streets. Public
buildings
Hold games
Emergency
Office
Praefectus iure
dicundo
Prefect for the
Administration
of Justice
Sole office
Wide ranging
emergency powers
Figure 1.11 Magistrates table
According to...Hurley, Medcalf, Murray & Rolph
The city of Pompeii was divided into wards (vici) and these served
as voting districts. The Imperial government rarely interfered with
town politics, meaning Pompeii in effect was governed by a group
of wealthy municipal aristocrats.
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Cities of Vesuvius
Herculaneum
The political organisation of Herculaneum
was similar to that of Pompeii. It was also
run by two duumviri. Its aediles, like those
at Pompeii, supervised the markets and
public works.
Evidence
Inscriptions mentioning an official called a
quaestor, who would have managed the
town’s finances. Source 2.10
Epigraphic Sources
Most of our knowledge of Pompeii’s political organisation is drawn from epigraphic
sources such as programmata. These indicate that the people of Pompeii
enthusiastically participated in the elections.
Building inscriptions also provide us with other information. Two very generous
duumviri, Valgus and Porcius, built a small theatre for the use of Pompeiians. It was part
of the expectation of people in public office that they build facilities for the people at
their own expense.
Source 2.11 Inscriptions from Pompeian Forum
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Cities of Vesuvius
According to ... Paul Wilkinson ‘Pompeii the Last Day’
Source 2.12
Almost 3,000 election notices have survived on the walls of Pompeii, and more
than half of them are for the election in the last year of the town’s existence. All
of the trades and industries of Pompeii are represented. These include the guilds
of porters, bath-stokers, muleteers, even schoolchildren are represented...The
vibrancy and number of election notices show a town alive and well, coping with
the earthquake disaster of AD 62 and rebuilding for the future. The candidates
themselves had the opportunity to expound their political programme whilst
standing on the suggestum, the orator’s platform situated in the forum.
The Duumviri
duumviri iure dicundo (the two men for administering justice)
Two chief magistrates.
Stood at the summit of political life
Small town equivalent of the consuls at Rome, BUT
o They had no military powers
o Solely concerned with the government of their
local community.
Elected in March each year by the populous (Roman
citizens) in a voting assembly, comitia.
Took office on 1st July for one year.
Responsibilities:
o Presided over the courts of the town
o Public money
o Calling together the town council (ordo
decurionum) and presiding over its meetings
o Carrying out the decrees of the council
Expected to:
o Use their own funds to benefit the community
o Provide spectacles for the people at their own
expense
Clothing:
o Purple bordered toga (toga praetexta)
Questions – based on sources
2.11 and 2.12
1. What would the
workers listed in Source
2.12 expect in return
for supporting a
political candidate at
the local elections?
2. According to
inscription A, why was
the wall built?
3. In inscription B, what
do you think is meant
by ‘let the contract’?
4. In inscription C, what
have the duumviri
given permission to be
built? Why do they
emphasise that it was
‘at their own expense’?
5. What do these
inscriptions reveal
about the role played
by the decuriones?
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Cities of Vesuvius
The Duumviri
Staffing for EACH one:
According to... Brian and Lazer
Source 2.13
‘This staff was probably filled by the chief magistrates’ own clients
and freedmen and cost 13,000 sesterces a year.’
o Two guards (lictores) who carried bundles of
rods (fasces) without axes on official occasions
o Two messengers (viatores) who delivered
written orders
o An attendant (accensus) who summoned
people to court and the council members to
their meetings. The attendant would be
present at both the court and the council
meetings to maintain order and announce the
time
o Copyist (libraries) to write down letters and
documents
o Diviner (haruspex) a man trained to practice a
form of divination
o Herald (praecox)
o Flute player (tibicen)
Image: Lictores with fasces
Had special places assigned to them in the theatre and at the games
The Aediles
Two lower ranking magistrates
Clothing:
o Purple bordered toga (toga praetexta)
Responsibilities:
o Day to day administration of the town
o Supervised the markets
o Took care of the temples
o Took care of the streets
Source 2.14 Pompeii House of Vettii
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-
Cities of Vesuvius
The Aediles
Granted permits to:
o Stall holders near the amphitheatre
o Others who occupied public land
o Erect altars
o Make votive offerings displayed in temples
Provided the people with public games and paid much of the cost themselves
o This was in the hope that their generosity as aediles would be
remembered when they stood for office of duumvirs.
Staffing for the aediles:
According to Brian and Lazer, ‘the cost of the staff for the two aediles was 3,000
sesterces per year.
o Secretary (scriba)
o Diviner (haruspex) a man trained to practice a form of divination
o Herald (praecox)
o Flute player (tibicen)
Four slaves would have been assigned to them and they would have acted like
police in the town
Slaves preceded the aediles carrying torches
Had special places assigned to them in the theatre and at the games
Priesthoods
According to... Brennan & Lazer
‘Politics and the state religion were intertwined.’
Source 2.15
Roman politicians usually held prestigious positions in the state and imperial cults as
part of their PATH OF OFFICES (cursus honorum). All political meetings were
accompanied by religious rites.
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Cities of Vesuvius
The Voting Assembly (Comitium)
WHAT:
Assembly of citizens
PURPOSE:
Voted for the duumviri and the aediles
HOW:
STEP 1
Voters were divided into ‘tribes’ that may have been termed
curiae/tribus.
According to...Brennan & Lazer
According to...Paavo Castren
The probable division of the city
was into four electoral districts and
these made up the tribes.
Source 2.16
We do not know what they were called in Pompeii
and Herculaneum or whether the ‘tribes’ were
based on different districts in the town.
Source 2.17
STEP 2
Candidates for the offices of duumviri and aediles presented themselves
to the electors as fixed pairs in election team.
STEP 3
The tribes each voted separately
STEP 4
When two candidates for office had received a majority in that tribe,
voting was stopped.
STEP 5
The vote was recorded for each tribe in turn and the candidates who
secured the group votes of a majority of tribes were declared elected.
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Cities of Vesuvius
The comitium: the how and the where on Voting
Roman practice was to divide the citizens into their voting units and into voting pens.
The classical historian...
Lawrence Richardson JR
The archaeologist Amedo Maiuri
An unroofed enclosure situated on the south-east
side of the forum of Pompeii (rebuilt after the
earthquake of AD 62 was the voting hall,
comitium.
Source 2.18
VS
Source 2.19
The comitium was too small. He argues it is
possible that the large number of voters
would have assembled in the theatre or
amphitheatre.
According to...Brennan & Lazer
Perhaps they were marshalled with
wooden barricades for voting purposes in
the open space of the forum itself and
that the actual building was merely
symbolic.
Source 2.20
To date there has not been a comitium identified at Herculaneum.
Source 2.21 Comitium at Pompeii
The comitium only met annually to
elect officials. It did not have any
other meetings to discuss policy and
only occasionally may have voted on
matters relating to the running of the
town. The comitium was not a
democratic assembly of the people.
It had no significant day-to-day role
Source 2.22 South-east side
on the government.
location: Comitium at Pompeii
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Cities of Vesuvius
The Ordo decurionum, Town Council
Who: Body of about 80-100 men chosen by a census of those men who were wealthy and influential.
Qualifications:
Normally had to be over 25 years of age
Have considerable wealth. Brennan suggests an amount of over 10,000
sesterces as being necessary.
Members were not elected by the people. Usually those who had served as aediles joined the council
automatically.
The Curia, The Council building
Located in one of the buildings on the south side of the forum at
Pompeii, close to the lawcourt, basilica).
It has been suggested that at
Herculaneum
the town
council met across the wide
main street from the
lawcourt
building,
but
neither site has been fully
excavated.
Source 2.24 Curia at Pompeii
Source 2.23 South-east side location
Curia at Pompeii
The quinquennales, The 5 yearly officials
Every five years the duumiviri of Pompeii would hold a census (lectio) to revise the roll of the town
council. On the fifth year the duumiviri would be called, the two qunquennales.
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Cities of Vesuvius
According to ... Brennan & Lazer
‘Holding office as a duumvir quinquennalis was considered to be the fitting culmination of a
brilliant career in local government.’
Source 2.25
The quinquennales, The 5 yearly officials
As they were entrusted with the power to revise the council roll, the quinquennalis commanded
the greatest respect.
During the 5 yearly revision, Councillors (decuriones) could be struck off the roll if they were
found to be disqualified.
Grounds for Disqualification
Bankruptcy
Court conviction
Bringing disgrace upon yourself
Vacancies
Only through death or
Removal of the unworthy
Choosing the new
The duumviri elected any new decuriones.
Requirements
High level of wealth (expected to spend their money on the community and be above the
lure of bribes
Only for freeborn – Liberti, no matter how wealthy were ineligible
CAN NOT BE an stage actor, gladiator trainer or procurers of prostitutes - they were
regarded as disreputable and unfit
Wealthy owners of businesses and proprietors of landed estates and vineyards found their way
on to council.
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Cities of Vesuvius
The minimum age for membership was 25 years of age, but on occasion the children of wealthy
men were enrolled as a special mark of honour or if they had used their money to benefit their
fellow citizens.
We also know of three other
children
from
prominent
families who were enrolled in
the council.
Evidence at Pompeii
An inscription reveals that a 6 year old, Numerius
Popidius Celsinus, was enrolled in the ordo
decurionum because of his family’sgenerosity in
rebuilding the Temple of Isis that had been
destroyed in an earthquake.
Source 2.26
Emergency Office - the praefectus iure dicundo
An extraordinary magistracy – could take the place of the duumviri for a short time, in a time of
emergency.
There appears to have been a delay in holding elections in AD 62, after the earthquake destroyed
much of the infrastructure of Pompeii. The Town Council appointed the duumvir quinquennalis of
60/61, C.Cuspius Pansa the Elder, to be praefectus in the emergency situation.
How do we know that?
An inscription on the Ampitheatre at Pompeii, after the
earthquake damage of AD 62:
Gaius Cuspius Pansa, son of Gaiu, the father, duumvir with judicial
power four times, quinquennial, praefectus with judicial power by
decree of the town councillors, in accordance with the Petronian
Law.”
Source 2.27
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Cities of Vesuvius
HONORARY TITLES
Tribunus militum a populo – Military tribune by popular choice
Originally signified officer status in the Roman legions. It eventually became an honorary title that
signified equestrian status and social importance in a municipality or colony.
The Pompeian Marcus Holconius
Rufus who was both duumvir and
military tribune, was honoured
with a statue at Pompeii showing
him in military dress uniform,
although he was not a serving
officer.
Source 2.28
Patronus coloniae – Patron of the colony
Awarded to a distinguished individual by the town council as a mark of honour. A Patronus would
represent the colony in dealings with the government at Rome and speak on behalf of citizens.
Source 2.30 Proconsul Marcus Balbus
Some Names
In Pompeii: Marcus Marcellus, the nephew of
Augustus
In Herculaneum: Proconsul Marcus Nonius
Balbus
Source 2.29
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Cities of Vesuvius
Princeps coloniae – First Man of the colony
Unofficial title is used in graffito to indicate an outstanding individual. It has no official standing
whatsoever. The title Princeps was used by Augustus and Tiberius to stress their singular place at the
top of society so it had a very powerful connotation.
Defensor coloniae
It is used informally for a distinguished local person who looked after the legal interests of the colony.
He might offer assistance to individuals from the community involved in court cases, or protect them
from visiting officials.
Political Patronage
Politics was dominated by the patronage of poorer citizens and of particular social and business groups
by members of powerful, wealthy elite. In a way similar to Rome itself, powerful local Pompeian’s
offered both protection and assistance to individuals.
They assisted those who sought advancement in political office or who desired to make connections
and alliances that would help them in business or in social life. In return, the patrons expected support
in elections and public recognition of their exalted status. The patron, patronus, could expect support
from his clients, clients. Every Patronus sought to outdo his rivals in the size and extent of his
supporters, clientele.
The number of clients who came to your house in the morning, or who accompanied you to the forum,
or who cheered you in the theatre, indicated your importance. Patronage might also be extended to
separate groups within the community or to the whole populates, whose support was won by offering
benefits, beneficia.
Benefits Included
Provision of food
Gladiatorial entertainments
Public works
Projects such as theatres
Temples
Public Baths
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Cities of Vesuvius
Some building projects might have been inititated by decree of the decuriones, and paid for by public
funds, but the commemorative inscriptions stress the role of the duumviri who supervised the work.
Other inscriptions make it clear that duumviri paid for the work themselves as a gift to their fellow
citizens.
Evidence
The hot baths (thermae) of the Forum were built by the duumvir L.
Caesius and the aediles C. Occius and L. Niraemius in the 70s BC. On the
lip of a large marble basin in thehot room, bronze letters commemorate
the work of the duumviri Cn. Melissaeus Aper and M. Staius Rufus who
had installed it in AD 3-4, at a cost of 5,420 sesterces.
Source 2.30
The great clans of Pompeii
Upper class people in Roman society usually had three names
A personal name – PRAENOMEN
A clan name – GENS NOMEN or just NOMEN
Family name – COGNOMEN
True Example
The prominent Pompeian Marcus Epidus Sabinus
Marcus (personal name) Epidus (clan name) Sabinus (family name)
PRAENOMEN
NOMEN
COGNOMEN
He is normally addressed by his family name, Sabinus, nut his nomen shows that he was part of the
Epidus clan. This was an extremely prestigious clan who could trace their ancestry back to Pre-Roman
times in the region.
These clans dominated the political life at Pompeii and Herculaneum. They used their wealth and
influence to gain election to the chief magistracies and selection to council.
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Cities of Vesuvius
Questions
1. Describe the main features of the magistracy in Pompeii.
2. Using sources 2.18, 2.19 and 2.20, present an argument in favour of or against
the use of a comitium for voting in Pompeii.
3. Duumviri often made it very clear that they paid for particular events or
buildings from their own money. Using the sources, explain the reasons they
may have had for doing this.
4. Assess why it is so important for an upper class Roman to use their three names?
5. Using a selection of the above Sources and your own knowledge of other
sources, describe what the evidence shows about politics in Pompeii and
Herculaneum.
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Cities of Vesuvius
Ancient History Sourcebook:
Inscriptions From Pompeii
[Davis Introduction]
There are almost no literary remains from Antiquity possessing greater human interest than these inscriptions
scratched on the walls of Pompeii (destroyed 79 A.D.). Their character is extremely varied, and they illustrate in a
keen and vital way the life of a busy, luxurious, and, withal, tolerably typical, city of some 25,000 inhabitants in the
days of the Flavian Caesars. Most of these inscriptions carry their own message with little need of a commentary.
Perhaps those of the greatest importance are the ones relating to local politics. It is very evident that the so-called
"monarchy" of the Emperors had not involved the destruction of political life, at least in the provincial towns.
Wall Inscriptions
1. Twenty pairs of gladiators provided by Quintus Monnius Rufus are to fight at Nola May First, Second, and Third,
and there will be a hunt.
2. Thirty pairs of gladiators provided by Gnaeus Alleius Nigidius Maius quinquennial duumvir, together with their
substitutes, will fight at Pompeii on November 24, 25, 26. There will be a hunt. Hurrah for Maius the Quinquennial!
Bravo, Paris!
3. The gladiatorial troop of the Aedile Aulius Suettius Certus will fight at Pompeii May 31. There will be a hunt, and
awnings will be provided.
4. Twenty pairs of gladiators furnished by Decimus Lucretius Satrius Valens perpetual priest of Nero, son of the
Emperor, and ten pairs of gladiators furnished by Decimus Lucretius Valens his son, will fight at Pompeii April 8, 9,
10, 11, and 12. There will be a big hunt and awnings. Aemilius Celer wrote this by the light of the moon.
5. The dyers request the election of Postumius Proculus as Aedile.
6. Vesonius Primus urges the election of Gnaeus Helvius as Aedile, a man worthy of pubic office.
7. Vesonius Primus requests the election of Gaius Gavius Rufus as duumvir, a man who will serve the public interest--do elect him, I beg of you.
8. Primus and his household are working for the election of Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus as Aedile.
9. Make Lucius Caeserninus quinquennial duumvir of Nuceria, I beg you: he is a good man.
10. His neighbors request the election of Tiberius Claudius Verus as duumvir.
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Cities of Vesuvius
11. The worshipers of Isis as a body ask for the election of Gnaeus Helvias Sabinus as Aedile.
12. The inhabitants of the Campanian suburb ask for the election of Marcus Epidius Sabinus as aedile.
13. At the request of the neighbors Suedius Clemens, most upright judge, is working for the election of Marcus Epidius
Sabinus, a worthy young man, as duumvir with judicial authority. He begs you to elect him.
14. The sneak thieves request the election of Vatia as Aedile.
15. The whole company of late drinkers favor Vatia.
16. The whole company of late risers favor Vatia.
17. Inn to let. Triclinium [dining room] with three couches.
18. Here slept Vibius Restitutus all by himself his heart filled with longings for his Urbana.
19. To rent from the first day of next July, shops with the floors over them, fine upper chambers, and a house, in the
Arnius Pollio block, owned by Gnaeus Alleius Nigidius Maius. Prospective lessees may apply to Primus, slave of
Gnaeus Alleius Nigidius Maius.
20. To let, for the term of five years, from the thirteenth day of next August to the thirteenth day of the sixth August
thereafter, the Venus bath, fitted up for the best people, shops, rooms over shops, and second-story apartments in the
property owned by Julia Felix, daughter of Spurius.
21. A copper pot has been taken from this shop. Whoever brings it back will receive 65 sesterces. If any one shall hand
over the thief he will be rewarded.
22. He who has never been in love can be no gentleman.
23. Health to you, Victoria, and wherever you are may you sneeze sweetly.
24. Restitutus has many times deceived many girls.
25. Romula keep tryst here with Staphylus.
26. If any man seek /My girl from me to turn, /On far-off mountains bleak, /May Love the scoundrel burn!
27. If you a man would be, /If you know what love can do, /Have pity and suffer me /With welcome to come to you.
28. At Nuceria, I won 8552 denarii by gaming---fair play!
29. On October 17 Puteolana had a litter of three males and two females.
30. The smallest evil if neglected, will reach the greatest proportions.
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Cities of Vesuvius
31. If you want to waste your time, scatter millet and pick it up again.
Copies of Business Transactions on Wax Tablets
32. Umbricia Januaria declares that she has received from Lucius Caecilius Jucundus 11,039 sesterces which sum came
into the hands of Lucius Caecilius Jucundus by agreement as the proceeds of an auction sale for Umbricia Januaria, the
commission due him having been deducted. Done at Pompeii, on the 12th of December, in the consulship of Lucius
Duvius and Publius Clodius. [56 A.D.]. (Many witnesses follow).
33. On the 18th of June in the duumvirate of Lucius Veranius Hypsaeus and Lucius Albucius Justus, I, Privatus, slave
of the colony of Pompeii, declared in writing that I had received from Lucius Caecilius Jucundus 1,675 sesterces, and
previous to this day, on June 6, I received 1000 sesterces as rent for the public pasture. Done at Pompeii in the
consulship of Gnaeus Fonteius and Gaius Vipstanus [59 A.D.]. (Many witnesses follow).
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