Adapting Equipment for Teaching Object Control Skills
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Vol. 27 - No. 4 : 2013 | Feature Articles
Sean Healy
University of Virginia
Abstract
A child's ability to execute object control skills, such as throwing, catching, striking and kicking, will affect their success in
more complex physical activities and sport participation. For a physical education (PE) teacher to effectively teach these
skills to a child with a disability, the adaptation of equipment may be necessary. This article suggests five ways equipment
can be adapted; explained as the five S's of equipment adaptation: size, sound, support, surface, and speed. A variety of
equipment pieces are presented incorporating these five adaptations.
Article
The child enters the fundamental motor skills period during infancy (Payne & Isaacs, 2012). In the next 6 to 7 years, the
child will acquire a repertoire of fundamental skills in this crucial period. These skills become a fundamental framework for
future movements (Payne & Isaacs, 2012). These skills are divided into two categories: fundamental locomotor skills and
fundamental object control skills. They are perceived as “fundamental” as they are necessary for the optimal development
of games and sports skills that are more complex (Steadward, Wheeler, & Watkinson, 2003). This is apparent when we
examine the skills used in the popular sports of baseball, basketball, tennis, and football. For individuals to successfully
participate, enjoy, and benefit from these activities, they must first attain this repertoire of fundamental skills. The
attainment of these skills is a complex process as the emergence of each skill is determined or shaped by the interaction
among three factors: organismic (related to the individual; e.g., structural factors), environmental (factors external to the
individual; e.g., wind and temperature), and task (conditions for the task; e.g., rules and equipment used; Newell, 1986).
The development of movement can be contained, shaped, or helped by the interaction of these factors.
Physical education (PE) teachers must be aware of such factors as they have the responsibility to teach the fundamental
skills to their students (Winnick, 2010). The role is imperative considering students’ later activity choices will hinge on the
skills developed during this period of development (Payne & Isaacs, 2012). To most effectively support the child in
acquiring fundamental skills, physical educators should consider Newell’s (1986) triad of constraints that affect
development. By considering such constraints, the physical educator can focus on the potential of the child and, through
identification of the most important constraints for the child, can create the most beneficial and suitable learning
environment (Getchell & Gagen, 2006). Adaptation of the task constraints is often the easiest and most effective way to
achieve this. One way to do this is to adapt the equipment used (Winnick, 2010). For children with disabilities in particular,
this differentiation of equipment is especially important to acquire fundamental motor skills, as they may have difficulty or
not be able to use regular equipment. Through using equipment designed with their abilities and needs in mind, children
can learn, practice, and perform a skill to their full potential.
However, when we examine the physical educator’s ability to access and use such individualized equipment, the many
difficulties they may face become apparent. Although, to the best knowledge of the author, no research currently exists
regarding the availability of adapted equipment in schools, the research on general PE reveals poor provision of
equipment in schools. Hardman’s (2008) global research revealed that 50% of the countries studied had limited or
insufficient equipment for PE. Such results suggest the availability of specialized, often expensive, adapted equipment is
inadequate or lacking in many schools. In addition, because the needs and abilities of children can vary, the most
suitable equipment pieces for them may not be commercially available. To overcome such challenges, physical educators
can turn to homemade equipment solutions, making the ability to make and adapt equipment an essential skill for PE
teachers.
Fortunately, many researchers suggest that using homemade equipment has values that exceed simply overcoming a
shortage of suitable equipment. This value has led to an increase in the popularity of homemade equipment in the last two
decades (Davison, 1998; Lichtman, 1999; Marston, 1994; Moss, 2004; Sullivan, Slagle, Hapshie, Brevard, & Brevard,
2012; Werner & Simmons, 1990). Research has revealed many benefits from using such equipment, for example, student
learning benefits, the development of creativity among teachers and students, and the development of interdisciplinary
teaching (Méndez-Giménez, 2003). Recent research has shown that when trainee PE teachers learned the skills to make
homemade, individualized equipment, they not only created valuable equipment pieces, but were also enabled to cope
more efficiently with school diversity (Méndez-Giménez, 2011). Such a benefit is immensely important and enables
teachers to fulfill the role of teaching fundamental motor skills to children with disabilities. The purpose of this article was
to provide physical educators with ideas of how to adapt equipment and how to make equipment individualized to their
students’ needs and abilities.
Five Ss of Equipment Adaptation
The five Ss of equipment adaptation (see Figure 1) can be used to guide teachers and practitioners to adapt equipment
for children with disabilities (Healy & Wong, 2012).
Size
All equipment can be adapted in size to allow the user to be more successful. For example, balls can be adapted so the
child can throw, kick, or strike more efficiently. For throwing, the ball should be of a suitable size and weight so the child
feels comfortable holding it and can easily lift it. For kicking and striking, a bigger ball allows children with coordination
difficulties to be more successful, providing them with a greater area of target with which to make contact. The size of
nets, basketball rings, bowling pins, goals, hula hoops, poly spots, skipping ropes, and other equipment should also be
adapted to suit the child.
Sound
Particularly for children with visual impairments, the addition of sound to sports equipment can make a previously
inaccessible activity accessible; sound can be added to balls, targets, cones, and other equipment. This can be achieved
through the use of security beepers or bells that can be fastened to equipment using Velcro or tape.
Support
This method of adaptation is particularly useful for teaching ball activities; it makes activities less dynamic and increases
the child’s chance of success. For example, to aid a child to practice striking with a bat, you can place the ball on a tee or
suspend it with a string.
Surface
Adapting the surface of equipment can greatly improve its use for many children; for example, adding texture to a ball or
the handle of a bat can allow the child to grip it more efficiently. This can be done by wrapping thin rope around an
equipment piece and covering it with tape. For children with visual impairments, the adaptation of the surface of
equipment is particularly important as it allows them to more efficiently use their proprioceptive skills. The addition of color
to equipment will also greatly help some children with visual impairments to see the equipment piece more clearly.
Speed
Slowing down the speed of some equipment can greatly aid some children. Balls, in particular, often need to be adapted
so that they are slower moving for easier catching, kicking, or striking.
Such adaptations can be applied to all equipment to ensure the child can use the equipment with maximum success. The
following outlines ways in which these adaptations are used to teach the object control skills of throwing, catching, kicking,
and striking. The five Ss of adaptation are applied to existing equipment and combined to create new equipment. These
adaptations can be transferred to other equipment and ultimately should allow the user to be competent in a game
situation with peers.
Throwing
The overhand throw can be one of the most challenging skills for any child to learn, demanding balance, strength,
flexibility, and coordination. Yet, it is integral to many of our most popular sports. Three inexpensive adaptations will be
discussed that can aid the child to learn the throw.
Line ball. This adaptation supports the ball by suspending it on a line of rope. The sponge ball has had a hole cut through
it, and two plastic bottles, cut at the bottom and placed inside one another, have been inserted into it. The ball, suspended
on the rope, assists in controlling the movement and increases the chance of the child practicing the correct throwing
technique (see Figure 2). As the child progresses, practice can be advanced to throwing without the support of the line.
This equipment piece adapts the speed and support of the ball. Sound can also be added through the addition of bells to
the ball, and of course, the ball itself should be adapted in size to suit the user.
Suspended line ball. This equipment piece also supports the ball by hanging it from a line as shown in Figure 3. The
child can hold this ball and throw it along the line using the overhand throw pattern (the carabiner slips across the line).
This equipment piece again encourages the child to throw using the correct arm pattern by not allowing the child to move
the ball below his or her shoulder.
Wall visual for overhand throw. This simple yet effective adaptation is another way to aid the child in learning the
overhand throw. A plastic cup is taped to the wall and a line is drawn on the wall, using colored tape, along the direction
the hand should move to perform the throw. A ball is placed in the cup; the ball in the cup gives the participant a clear
visual of the starting position for the throw, and the line on the wall shows the line the throwing hand should follow. Size of
the ball and height of cup on the wall should be modified to suit the needs of the child (see Figure 4).
Catching
Another fundamental skill at the heart of many of our most popular sports is the catch. This can be a challenging skill for
many children, particularly children with poor hand–eye coordination or grasping difficulties. The following adaptations can
help all children achieve success with this skill.
Suspended line ball. As used for teaching the throw (Figure 3), the suspended ball (at chest height) will also aid the child
in learning to catch. The ball is “thrown” so that it slides along the line for the child to catch. This adaptation piece supports
the ball and gives it a predictable trajectory, in addition to reducing its speed.
Lightweight ball. Adapting the weight of the ball is also another simple yet effective means to aid a child in learning to
catch. The ball can also be replaced by a lighter, slower moving item; for example, a balloon or a lightweight scarf instead
of a ball would allow for easier catching. In addition, a balloon wrapped in tights or a stocking will also create a durable
lightweight ball (see Figure 5). This adaptation affects the speed of the ball. Sound could be added by inserting rice into
the balloon. The surface could also be adapted, as suggested earlier, by wrapping thin rope around the ball and covering
it in tape.
The catch line. Similar to the line ball for the throw, the catch line is a piece of equipment that can be created to aid a
child to learn to catch. It is an ideal starting equipment piece to teach the child with underdeveloped coordination or a fear
of getting hurt by a ball. The catch line involves the ball with the bottles inserted into it (as used in Figure 2) to be placed
over two lines. The closed end of these lines is then attached to a belt that surrounds the child. The open end can then be
pulled apart to move the ball at the desired speed to the child to catch (see Figure 6). This equipment piece adapts
through supporting the ball and controlling the speed.
Striking
Suspended balls. Both suspended line balls and hanging balls (outlined in the catch) can be used to teach the strike.
Both adaptations allow for the ball to be hit while stationary or can be used to allow the child to strike a ball moving at a
predictable trajectory (see Figure 7). Adaptations of size and sound may also need to be applied, in addition to support
and speed adaptations.
Ball on tee. A cone, used as a tee to support a ball, is another simple and effective means to teach the strike. The size of
the ball and the bat should also be adapted for maximum success (see Figure 8).
Balloon table tennis. Table tennis, an activity that involves the strike, can be adapted by tying a balloon to the net using
a string that reaches to the edge of the table (Figure 9). This piece adapts the speed and the size of the regular table
tennis game. This game can be played on the ground or on a tabletop, allowing the child to kneel, sit, or stand.
Kicking
Ball to waist. A ball suspended from the waist may be a helpful adaptation for a child learning to kick or dribble a ball. It
allows the child to control the movement of the ball with his or her hands using the rope and prevents the ball from rolling
away. For children with mobility difficulties, this may be a necessary adaptation. This piece adapts the speed and provides
support for the ball. Note that this equipment piece should only be used for individual practice to reduce the chance of the
child tripping over the rope (see Figure 10).
Weighted ball. A ball can also be made to roll at a slower speed to aid the child in controlling the ball for kicking and
dribbling practice. This can be achieved by cutting a small hole in a rubber ball, inserting sand (approximately half a cup),
sealing the hole with tape, and then pumping the ball up. Similar to the ball suspended from the waist, this adaptation will
prevent the ball from rolling away and allow the child to control it more easily. Increasing the size of the ball and adding
sound may also aid some children (see Figure 11).
Summary
All children have the right to enjoy and benefit from physical, psychological, and social benefits of physical activity. But to
do so, they require the ability to perform the fundamental motor skills that are at the heart of our most popular activities.
Physical educators have an imperative role in supporting children to acquire these skills. To do so effectively, the physical
educator should consider the interaction of the factors that influence motor skill development: organismic, environmental,
and task (Newell, 1986). Equipment is one task constraint that can be particularly influential. For some children with
disabilities, this is especially true as regular equipment is sometimes inadequate due to the unique needs and abilities of
the child. Using the five Ss of equipment adaptation (size, sound, support, surface, and speed), equipment can be made
or adapted to allow for the maximum success of all children.
Appendix A
Additional Equipment Information
1. Bowling set (Figure 1). Create pins from old soda bottles; choose the size of the soda bottles depending on the
ability of the participant; the bigger the bottle, the easier it is to hit with the ball. Alternatively, increasing the
number of bottles to be hit will also make the activity easier. Insert sand into the bottles so they stand easily when
the support line is pulled up. Paint each bottle with bright luminous paint. Colors can be adapted depending on the
visual ability of each participant. Fasten six strings to each bottle cap and insert them through a hole in the cap,
and then tie a knot to secure the strings. Then tie the strings to the vertical support line. Tie an auditory device (a
toy tambourine in this example) to this line and rest it on top of the standing bottles. You could also attach bells.
Then clip the vertical line to a horizontal line by a carabiner. The ball used in this activity had air removed so it
rolled slower.
2. Suspended line ball (Figure 2). The horizontal line used for this equipment piece is a clothesline; this offers less
friction than a regular rope. To create the ball, take two soda bottles and cut off the end of each bottle and remove
the cap. Join the bottles at each end using tape (i.e., the end of one soda bottle is inserted into the end of the
other soda bottle and fastened with tape). Next, take a ball with sponge inside it, cut a slit in one side of the ball,
and remove enough sponge so the bottles can be inserted into the ball with each top of the bottles at each end of
the ball. Now reinsert the sponge around the bottles. Sew up the slit that was cut in the ball to secure the bottles
in the ball; leave a hole around the two bottle tops. The clothesline can now be strung through the bottles (in one
bottle top and out the other).
3. The suspended ball (Figure 3). Fasten the hanging line to the horizontal line using a carabiner. Various ways are
available to attach the ball to the hanging line. In the picture in Figure 3, the line is attached through a clip inserted
into the ball, which is then sewn over. Alternatively, the ball can be placed in a net and tied to the hanging line. To
hang a tennis ball, a small hole can be made in the ball (i.e., with a wine opener or drill). A small screw can then
be tied to the hanging line. When this is pushed through the hole in the ball, it will turn, securing the ball to the
line.
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