ELTIS Training on
Environmental Zones
Krakow 2009
TU DRESDEN
Lehrstuhl für
Verkehrsökologie
Mathias Winter, TU Dresden, Verkehrsökologie, D- 01062 Dresden
matthias.winter@tu-dresden.de
Environmental zones
Workflow of this part:
1.
Definition
2.
Legal context
3.
Main pollutants
4.
Environmental zones

Status in Europe

Examples

Planning and assessing EZ

Lessons learnt
Environmental zones – definition of the topic
Definition
 spatial (and temporal) traffic restriction measures,
 entry permissible to vehicles:
 fulfilling pre-defined emission standards,
 of defined age,
 that belong to defined vehicle categories (weight, length),
 that utilise a given loading capacity (% of max. load).
Combinations of these criteria are common.
Environmental zones – definition of the topic
Intention: usually to reduce the negative environmental effects of
road traffic as a main cause of urban air pollution and noise.
Display/ signage: additional sign indicting which vehicles are
effected / exempted from the driving ban.
Alternative terms:
 Low emission zones (LEZ) (e.g. GE; IT, SE)
 Green zones, clear zones (e.g. GB, London)
 (Vehicle) access restriction zones (e.g. CZ)
Environmental zones – the context
Criteria for air quality assessment in Europe and air quality limit values
were defined in “air quality framework directive” (directive 99/30/EC)
and its daughter directives
 Directive 1999/30/EC addressing SO2, NO2 / NOX, PM10 and lead
 Directive 2000/69/EC addressing CO and benzene
 Directive 2002/3/EC regulates ozone concentration in ambient
air.
Replacement of these directives with directive 2008/50/EC on May 21th 2008.
Environmental zones – the context
Aims of the directives:
 definition of targets for air quality
 reduction ore avoidance of negative impacts on health and environment
 consistent assessment of air quality in the member states
 to rise awareness by establishing threshold values
 increase of air quality if not satisfying
Most relevant emissions in ambient air of developed countries:
PM10;
PM2,5 (1);
NO2,
Ozone;
(SO2)
Environmental zones – the context
Selected limit- and target values to protect human health
component
type of limit
value
fine particles
(PM 10)
limit value
fine particles
(PM 2,5)
limit value
target value
limit value
guideline value
average for
threshold
concentration
[µg/m³]
tolerable number of
limit value
exciedances
originally to be
obeyed until
possible
extension of
deadline until
24 h
50
35 x / a
(90.41- percentile)
2005
2011
1 year
1 year
1 year
1 year
40
25
25
20
-----
2005
2010
2015
2020
2011
20
--
2015
1h
200
2010
2015
1 year
40
18 x / a
(99.8- percentile)
--
2010
2015
obligation**
gliding
regarding
annual
Average
average
Exposure
over 3 years
Indicator (AEI)*
nitrogen dioxide limit value
NO 2
limit value
2008/50/EGof May 21th 2008
following the new air quality directive
* AEI - Average Exposure Indicator- to be measured for urban background und als Mittelwerte für Gebiete und Ballungsräumen des gesamten
Hoheitsgebiets eines Mitgliedstaats (aus Berlin 3 Messpunkte) ermittelt. Letztendlich gibt er die durchschnittliche Exposition von
PMdie
2,5 für
Bevölkerung in Deutschland an.
** Die Einhaltung des absoluten AEI-Schwellenwertes von 20 µg/m³ ist rechtlich bindend. Gleichzeitig wurde ein rechtlich nicht bindendes
nationales Ziel für eine prozentuale Minderung des AEI-Indikators festgelegt, das ausgehend vom Niveau der Jahre 2008-2010 einen bis zu 20%igen Rückgang der Expositionskonzentration bis 2020 vorsieht.
Environmental zones – the context
In case of limit value accedence's municipalities are obliged to set up:
 short term action plans or
 medium and long term clean air plans,
Measures described in those plans need to be adequate to reduce pollution.
The air quality directive targets all pollution sources not transport in particular!
Environmental zones – the context
Possible measures vary considerably with regard to:
 effectiveness,
 costs,
 political feasibility,
 temporal and spatial scales.
Ideally, an optimal combination of short and long term actions should be
implemented, aiming at both the short term reduction of overall air
pollutant emissions and the long term improvement of air quality in areas
where limit values are exceeded.
Environmental zones – the context
Categories of possible measures in the transport sector:
 measures to reduce IMT demand,
 traffic management measures
 infrastructure measures
 vehicle-related measures
 awareness rising and education
Low Emission Zones
Environmental zones – the context
Traffic restrictions can be rather effective measures.
Their temporal and spatial extent can be defined by the municipalities
by means of the set up clean air plans.
Legal framework and responsibilities vary considerably within the
EU member states.
Environmental zones – status and future developments
Most current environmental zones target PM10.
Further key pollutants to be covered:
 PM 2,5 (target value 2010,limit value 2015)
 nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (limit value 2010)
 ozone
 (sulphur dioxide (SO2))
 noise !!!
Key pollutants &
environmental and health effects
Environmental zones – excursus urban key pollutants
Road accidents (only Germany)
 5.800 killed people in 2006
1. Diesel particles (only Germany)
 8.000 - 17.000 cardiopulmonary
 1.100 - 2.200 lung cancer
--------------------------------------------- 9.000 – 19.000 premature deaths
 (9 years of lifetime per affected person lost)
2. Transport related noise (only Germany)
 ca. 20.000 premature deaths
Particles
Excursus urban key pollutants - particles
Particles:
 sum parameter,
 complex physico-chemical mixture,
 consists of primary emitted and secondary formulated particles (main share)
Air quality limit values and today's emission limits concern mass of particles.
Health effects correlate with surface and particle number!
Excursus urban key pollutants - particles
Health effects correlate with surface are and particle number!
[Atmospheric Environment, Volume 12, Withbby K.]
Excursus urban key pollutants - particles
Particles:
 shorten life expectancy and
 increase the number of premature deaths,
 increase hospital admission and
 increase emergency room visits.
Particularly dangerous is the fine fraction, that includes particles with a
diameter up to 2.5 μm (PM2.5), as it penetrates more deeply into the lungs.
Both fine and ultrafine particles contribute to the observed health effects.
Pathways for health effects depend on structure, chemical composition and
particle size.
Excursus urban key pollutants - particles
Diameter
Durchmesser
in
[mm]
Sandkorn grob
1
Alveole (Lungenbläschen)
0,1
SinkgeschwinSink rate
digkeit
in in
[mm/s]
Oberfläche
Anzahl per
pro
Surface
per Number
mass
unit
pro
EinheitsEinheitsgemass unit
gewicht
wicht
TSP/ Schwebestaub 0,075
100
Hair(feinstes)
(thin)
Haar
PM10
PM10
0,01
3
1
1
Bronchiole PM5
0,006
0,035
10
1‘000
0,000‘86
100
1‘000‘000
Zelle (kleinste) PM1 0,001
Licht untere Sichtbarkeitsgrenze)
0,000‘4
Diesel particle
Dieselpartikel
(mittlere
Größe)
(average
size)
0,000‘1
Virus
0,000‘01
Gasmolekül (groß)
0,000‘001
hair 10 μm
diesel particle 100 nm
[A. Mayer; TTM Technik Thermische Maschinen, CH]
Excursus urban key pollutants - particles
sources of particle formulation
natural sources
volcanic
activity
sea spray
wind
anthropogenic sources
combustion processes
biogenic sources
natural background
transport
transformation
of gaseous
emissions
agriculture
/ mining
industrial
processes
Excursus urban key pollutants - particles
transport related particles
fuel combustion/
thermal processes
primary
abrasion
secondary
ash particles
sooth particles
condensates
resuspension
Excursus urban key pollutants - particles
Share of particle sources at a road side
gauging station
heating and
solvents
6%
other sources
10%
transport abrasion and
resuspension 38%
industry and
power plants 5%
transport exhaust
emissions 42%
(share diesel 95%)
Excursus urban key pollutants - particles
transport related PM10 – emissions
including abrasion and resuspension
spatial reference
country
city
street
rest
rest
rest
17% - 32%
35% - 55%
50% - 85%
Excursus urban key pollutants - particles
Premature death in Europe due to fine particles:
 >100.000
 725.000 years of life lost [Health report WHO 2002]
Nitrogen dioxide
Excursus urban key pollutants – nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide
 sources:
 high temperature processes (fuel combustion)
 catalytic reactions (diesel oxidation catalyst, catalytic coated DPT)
 near ground ozone depletion
 main source is road transport
 rising share in diesel exhaust gas emissions (OC, DPT)
 no separate emissions limit value (included in NOx)
 rising concentration in ambient air
 NO2 is a strong irritant for all mucosa's and tissues (e.g. lung)
Excursus urban key pollutants – nitrogen dioxide
Assessment of nitrogen dioxide
Associated effect categories:
NO, NO2: Human toxicity, eutrophication, photochemical oxidant
formation, acidification
greenhouse effect, stratospheric ozone depletion
N2O:
Tendency
of
immissions
Primary location of
effects and
reductions
Ecological
danger
Contribution
of transport
Target
distance
NOx
+++
+++
++
local, regional, global
NO
++
+++
++
local, regional
NO2
+++
+++
+++
local, regional
N2O
+++
++
++
global
Indicator
* limit value aiming at protection of the vegetation according to directive 1999/30/EC, valid from 07-19-2001
** annual average value according to directive 1999/30/EC, valid from 01-01-2010
+++ very large
++ large
+ average
New limit value to be abode by 2010!
Critical
immission
limit value
30 µg/m
3*
40g/m
-
3 **
Environmental zones – NO2 emission factors HDV and buses
Vehicle emission factors NO2 [IFEU etc.]
NO2-emission factors city buses
4,5
4,5
4
4
3,5
3
EURO IV DPF
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
Euro I
EURO II
EURO III
EURO IV
EURO V DPF
NO2-emission faktors [g/km]
NO2-eissions [g/km]
NO2-eission factors HDV
3,5
EURO IV DPF
3
EURO II DPF
2,5
2
1,5
1
EURO II
EURO III
Euro I
EURO IV
0,5
EURO V DPF
0
0
typ of vehicle/ emission badge
emission standard/exhaust treatment
NO2 [g/km NO2 Äquivalent]
EURO III DPF
HDV
Euro I
EURO II
EURO III
EURO IV
EURO IV DPF
EURO V DPT
0,4
0,6
0,55
0,4
2,55
0,28
EURO III
EURO III DPT
EURO IV
EURO IV DPT
EURO V DPT
0,75
4,25
0,57
2,83
0,3
type of vehicle/ emission badge city buses
emission standard/ exhaust treatment
Euro I
NO2 [g/km NO2 Äquivalent]
0,65
EURO II EURO II DPT
0,92
2,28
Environmental zones – NO2 emission factors passenger cars
Vehicle emission factors NO2 [IFEU etc.]
NO2 Emissionsfaktoren für Diesel Pkw
0,250
0,250
0,200
0,200
NO2 in g/km
NO2 in g/km
NO2-Emissionsfaktoren Otto-Pkw
0,150
0,100
0,050
<EURO I
Euro I
EURO IV CDPF
EURO III
0,150
<EURO I Euro I
EURO II
0,100
EURO IV
EURO 5
0,050
EURO 6
EURO II
EURO III
0,000
mean [g/km NO2 Äquivalent]
Emission badge
Emission standard
mean [g/km NO2 Äquivalent]
<EURO I
0,045
EURO IV
0,000
passenger cars gasoline
Euro I
EURO II
0,034
0,010
passenger cars diesel
<EURO I
Euro I
0,110
0,105
EURO II
0,110
EURO III
0,003
EURO III
0,159
EURO IV
0,001
EURO IV EURO IV CDPF EURO 5
0,140
0,195
0,100
EURO 6
0,020
Environmental zones
Environmental zones – restriction criteria
Restricting criteria used in praxis:

demands on the age of the vehicle combined with a weight limits
(Stockholm, SE)

demands on utilization of loading capacity for vehicles with a weight over
a special limit (Amsterdam, DK)

vehicles with a weight (or length) over a special limit (Copenhagen, DK)

reduced accessibility for traffic (closure of streets for traffic (pedestrian
zones), limited entry points to a certain area) (Sucaeva, RO; London, UK)

access control to defined area during a special time of the day (Madrid,
ES)

emission level of the vehicle ((particle) emission badge) (Berlin, GE)
Source: http://213.131.156.10/xpo/bilagor/20030509053222.pdf
Environmental zones – current status in Europe
[http://www.lowemissionzones.eu/ ]
Environmental zones – current status in Europe
Low Emission Zones in Europe
typ of restriction
country
1 weight (7,5t)
Austria
2 weight (3,5t)
Czech Republic
3 weight (3,5t)
4 weight (3,5t)
5 weight (3,5t)
6 weight (3,5t)
7 weight (3,5t/5t)
example towns
motorway (Tyrol)
Praha
Aalborg, Frederiksberg,
Denmark
Arhus, Copenhagen...
Amsterdam, Eindhoven,
Netherlands
Maastricht, Rotterdam ...
Norway
Bergen, Oslo, Trondheim
Stockholm, Malmö,
Sweden
Gothenburg, Lund,
United Kingdom London, Norwich
8 Emissions badge Germany
9 Emissions badge Italy
Berlin, Bochum, Cologne,
Hannover, Munich,...
Bozen, Veneto, Piemonte,
Lombardia, Emilia-Romagna
total number
number
of towns
1
1
start date
2007
2008
5
2008 - 2010
19
3
as from 2007
as from 2010
4
2
2007
2008
39
as from 2008
6
2007
80
Example Berlin
Environmental zones – example Berlin, GE
Method: (particle) emission badge
Introduction: January 1st 2008
Affected area: 88 km2
Inhabitants: 1’000’000 (3.4 Mio.)
Affected vehicle:
all vehicles
Restriction:
appropriate emission badge
(2009 r,j,g)
(2010 green)
Authorisation:
emission badge
Exceptions for vehicles (1 a) with:
service vehicle (German law)
approved exhaust control
special bodywork, low milage
handicapped people
Source:
http://www.berlin.de/sen/umwelt/luftqualitaet/de/luftreinhalteplan/umwel
tzone_allgemeines.shtml#top
genauere Karten:
http://www.berlin.de/sen/umwelt/luftqualitaet/de/luftreinhalteplan/downl
oad/Umweltzone_Beikarten_1-10_druck.pdf
Control system:
police
fine/ towing vehicles out of zone
Information:
brochures, media, internet
Environmental zones – example Berlin, GE
(particle) emission badge
Emission group
1
badge/ sticker
no badge
requirements for
diesel vehicles
Euro 1 or
worse
requirements for
gasoline vehicles
without
controled
catalyst
2
3
4
Euro 2 or
Euro 3 or
Euro 4 or
Euro 1 + Euro 2 + DPT
DPT
Euro 3 + DPT
with controlled
catalyst (Euro 1 or
better)
 Germany: standardised government regulations for driving bans
 four emission standard classes (marking by according badges)
Environmental zones – example Berlin, GE
Results:
 reduction of traffic volume?
Environmental zones – example Berlin, GE
vehicles with emission badge
Results:
 no significant reduction of traffic volume
 no shifts of traffic
 avoidance of traffic (whole city)
 changes in vehicle fleet?
LEZ
passenger cars
LEZ
duty vehicles (HDV+LDV)
Environmental zones – example Berlin, GE
Results:
 no significant reduction of traffic volume
 no shifts of traffic
 avoidance of traffic (whole city)
 significant changes in vehicle fleet
vehicles without emission badge
passenger cars
duty vehicles (HDV+LDV)
Environmental zones – example Berlin, GE
Results:
 no significant reduction of traffic volume
 no shifts of traffic
 avoidance of traffic (whole city)
 significant changes in vehicle fleet
 changes in vehicle exhaust gas emissions
diesel particles
-24%
NOx
-14%
Environmental zones – example Berlin, GE
Results:
 no significant reduction of traffic volume
 no shifts of traffic
 avoidance of traffic (whole city)
 significant changes in vehicle fleet
 changes in vehicle exhaust gas emissions
 improvements of air quality
 PM10
annual average -3%
 local PM emissions 8%
 -4 days of limit value exceedance
 NOx
 annual average -10%
 NO2
 no reductions (probably increase)
Example Copenhagen
Environmental zones – example Copenhagen, DK
Method: % of utilised maximum loading capacity
Source:http://www.regione.emiliaromagna.it/wcm/ERMES/Canali/trasporti/logistica_merci/pubblicazio
ne_44_2005_quadreni_vol7/City_Ports_vol7_ingl.pdf
Area: inner city centre 1km2
Inhabitants: 6’000 (1’153’615)
Costs: 27’000 Euro
Affected vehicle:
HDV >2.5 t (3500 per day)
Restriction:
(loading and unloading)
Monday – Friday 8 pm – 12 pm
Min. 60% utilised loading capacity
Authorisation:
green City Goods certification
Control system, fines:
police
parking fine 510 DKR
withdraw of certificate
Information:
newsletter to transport association,
letter to inhabitants, magazine
article, meetings, internet,
information plate at perking
meters…
Example London
Environmental zones – example London, UK
Method: Restriction by vehicle emission levels
Affected area: most of Greater
London (>1500 km2)
Affected vehicle:
HDV, buses, coaches, LDV, vans,
minibuses
Restriction:
2008 EURO III, 2012 EURO IV
2010 vans, minibuses EURO III
Authorisation:
registration in vehicle register
Charge for non compliant vehicles:
£200/day (HGV, buses, coaches)
£100/day (vans and minibuses)
Enforcement (Penalty Charge):
£1,000 (HDV, buses & coaches)
£500 (LDVs & minibuses)
Source: http://www.tfl.gov.uk/roadusers/lez/german.aspx
Control system:
camera detection and checks
against register
Environmental zones – example London, UK
Source: Transport for London, Steve Kearns
Planning and assessing
environmental zones
Environmental zones – fundamentals
Tautology of transport ecology:
 pragmatically approach to assess transport related emissions
 combination of transport related key factors
 result shows e.g. mass of emissionx per time unit
 specifies 4 (5) main fields of action to reduce transport’s environmental effects
emissions
number of trips
person kilometers vehicle kilometers
emissions
 number of individual s x
x
x
x
year
number of individual s
number of trips
person kilometers vehicle kilometers
spatial planning
Main factors influencing transport emissions:
awareness rising
prise signals
 number of emitting individuals
and publicity
 number of motorised trips per individual
technology
and time unit
avoidance of traffic
 trips’ length (factor three)
 the vehicles’ capacity utilisation (factor four)
 (specific) emissions per vehicle kilometer
technical measures
Environmental zones – determining factors
The efficiency of environmental zones is mainly defined by:
 their spatial extend,
 their positioning in the transport network
 number, mileage and emission level of effected vehicles,
 number and type of exceptions,
 applied control and enforcement and
 accompanying measures.
Environmental zones – implementation steps
Steps to ensure successful implementation
Environmental zones – the first step
Assess real pollutant immission levels and compare to limit values
screening
 identification of probable hot spots (all sources)
gauging
 preliminary measuring method (fast interim results)
 standardised measuring method (time reference, sample preparation,
dilution, position, used equipment)
modelling (emissions, immissions, defined scenarios and time horizons)
define / check:
 target area
 responsible authorities and stakeholders
 existing and coming target and limit values
 climatic and geographic conditions
 data availability and need of research
Environmental zones – the second step
Identify the share of local and regional / supra-regional emission sources
Include all regional and local sources:
 stationary (industry, private households, power plants, construction …)
 linear/ non-stationary (road transport, off-road transport, agriculture …)
 natural sources (sea salt, dust)
Include pollutant entry from distant sources (trajectory)
 differentiate spatially (rural, urban, roadside, district)
 differentiate by components (NOx, NO2, PM10, PM2,5, BC …. )
Environmental zones – the third step
Quantify the share of transport related sources
 composition and mileage of the local fleet
 share of vehicle categories
 transit traffic
 differentiate to road categories
 emission factors
 include exhaust emissions, resuspension and abrasion
 vehicle categories
 exhaust gas treatment system
 traffic situation
 consider emission trends and future fleet/ fuel development
 real driving differs from test procedures
 deficits in real life data availability (emission factors,
traffic situation, fleet, road surface, resuspension)
Environmental zones – the third step
Comparison of
real
factors
(read
squares)
based on
tracing and program
Vergleich
von emission
Emissionsfaktoren auf
der Grundlage
empirisch
ermittelter Verkehrssituationen
mitvehicle
Emissionsfaktoren,
welche durch verschiedene Programme bestimmt wurden
based standard emission factors
of
MOBILEV
(green triangles) and ISIS (blue squares).
(für 108
untersuchte
Dresdner Straßenabschnitte)
3
2,5
HC- EFA [g/km]
2
gemessen
tracing
ISIS
1,5
Mobilev
1
0,5
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Messw ertnum m er
70
80
90
100
110
Environmental zones – the fourth step
Analyse the current situation
 key factors to include are:
 structure, capacity and utilisation of the road network,
 current traffic relations (wells, destinations and inter-relations),
 traffic volumes,
 traffic flow,
 status and potentials of alternatives to IMT (walking, cycling, PT, car sharing …)
 legal situation and responsibilities
Based on this data:
 develop possible scenarios (restricting criteria, spatial extend, positioning …)
 anticipate dynamic effects and avoiding reactions
(shift of destinations, circumnavigation …)
 utilise optimisation potentials (TL setting, coordination …)
 implement / prepare supportive measures (PT, park and ride,
parking management …..)
Environmental zones – the fifth step
Political decision process
 identify stakeholders (EU legislative, national legislative, public authorities,
NGO’s, residents, lobby groups, researchers ...)
 involve all stakeholders right from the beginning
 design a transparent participative process (moderation, rules of interaction …)
 present a clear status report (current situation, further developments)
 present adequate options (good preparation, focus on the advantages)
 be informed and refer to existing experiences
 schedule loops and sufficient time
 consider further local targets and regional specialities
Define:
 type of zone, size, positioning, boundaries, fines, enforcement,
regulation of exemptions, future steps (tightening, scheduling)
 costs, financing, responsibilities, schedule, allocation of fines
Environmental zones – the sixth step
Awareness raising and publicity
 address all stakeholders/ target groups
 involve adequate multipliers
 use target group specific media
 act well prepared and persistent
 align with decision makers right from the beginning
 present aims and need of action traceable
 refer to existing experiences
 act integrative (do not segregate, use change in perspective)
 focus on advantages
 define affected vehicles and identifying features
Societal acceptance for low emission zones strongly depends on
pre-implementation publicity!
Environmental zones – the seventh step
Implementation and enforcement
 identify entry points and main access routs to the affected area
 install signs, and control systems
 equip / support enforcement (legal framework, staff, instruction / training)
 install feedback to publicity
 supply adequate information (native language, other languages)
 internet, tourist information, city authorities, police, stakeholders, embassies
Used groups of control system:

administrative permissions

restrictions marked by road signs

physical automatic systems

pay systems
Environmental zones – the eights step
Impact assessment and adoptions
 before – after comparison
 consider changed framework (fuel prices, economic conditions, changes of
road network / capacity, PT offer, buying incentives …)
 keep differing time scale of effects / changes in mind
 identify induced changes in spatial structure
 observe relocation of traffic, modal shift, vehicle fleet, changed destinations
 include surrounding area in your investigation
 identify social exclusion
 identify and learn from dynamic reactions of persons / groups concerned
Lessons learnt
Environmental zones – note!

anticipate dynamic effects (shifts of emissions, traffic, spatial structure)

design zone of sufficient spatial extent and proper position

publicity defines societal acceptance / start very early

step by step is better than nothing (size and affected vehicles)

base modelling on real data (traffic situation, fleet, emission factors, surface)




consider abrasion and resuspension properly
check against possible legal conflicts

Does legal situation allow this type of restrictions?

Are aimed emission reductions correspondent to the vehicles affected?
ensure access

implement supportive alternatives (PT, services, car sharing…)

exceptions
ensure strict and efficient enforcement
Learn from good examples and adapt to your local framework.
Environmental zones – key factors of success
Embed your environmental zone in a long term orientated overall concept
including e.g.:
 spatial planning,
 mixed functions,
 short distances,
 promotion of cycling, walking, PT,
 awareness rising,
 push and pull measures ...
Environmental zones – main side effects
Side effects:
 possible shift of traffic and emissions to surrounding road network
 possible rise of overall emissions due to:
 usage of alternate routs around the zone
 shift of destinations
 avoidance of traffic
An additional effect of low emission zones is the accelerated fleet modernisation and
thus a reduction of road traffic emissions.
Environmental zones – boundaries and limitations
 older vehicles cause higher emissions per km but have lower annual mileage
 nearly no effect on abrasion and resuspension
 transport sources for NO2, noise, PM10, NMHC might differ
 fleet modernisation is a mid term effect (mileage reductions are to prefer)
 additional bypasses cause increasing overall mileage
 emission reductions of isolated environmental zones are usually not sufficient to
meet air quality limits
Emission reductions and side effects strongly depends on spatial extent and on the
regulations regarding the vehicles affected by the entry restrictions.
Not to act would be inhumane!
Further information
Links & Sources:
• Low Emission Zones in Europe http://www.lowemissionzones.eu/
• Low Emission Zones in Germany http://osiris.uba.de/Website/umweltzonen/start.htm
• Information Portal on the environmental badge in Germany http://www.umwelt-plakette.de/int_england.php?
• Department for Transport, GB http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/roads/tpm/clearzones/
• Transport for London / Low Emission Zone http://www.tfl.gov.uk/roadusers/lez/default.aspx
Practical part of the
training