General Psych 2
States of Consciousness:
Hypnosis – Module 18
Drugs and Consciousness – Module 19
April 6-13, 2004
Classes #19-21
Hypnosis
• An altered state of consciousness
brought on by special techniques and
that produces responsiveness to
suggestions for changes in experience
and behavior
• Probably around since antiquity, the
rediscovery of hypnosis is commonly
credited to Franz Anton Mesmer
Franz Anton Mesmer
(1734-1815)
• Mesmer would pass magnets over the bodies
of ailing people, some of who would lapse
into a trancelike state and then awaken much
improved
– At the time many thought Mesmer’s work was
linked to quackery…
– Today skepticism remains as books on hypnosis is
often grouped with those on parapsychology,
ghosts, and witchcraft
• Nevertheless, most psychologists believe it to
be a respectable topic for scientific study
Can hypnosis work on anyone?
Can you be hypnotized against your will?
• Hypnotic Susceptibility
– Degree to which a person responds to hypnotic
suggestions
• Willingness to be hypnotized is most important
factor
• A key quality of hypnotically susceptible people
is if they can become deeply absorbed in
imaginative activities (Fantasy-prone
personalities)
• Stanford Hypnotic Suggestibility Scale
Can hypnosis enhance the recall
of forgotten events?
• Can hypnosis help you to retrieve forgotten or
suppressed details of a crime?
• Can hypnosis help you to recall kindergarten
classmates?
• Can hypnosis alleviate pain?
• There is some controversy surrounding
these questions…
1976 Bus Kidnapping (Chowchilla, CA)
• On July 15, 1976 a busload of children aged
5-14 and their school bus driver, Ed Ray (then
55 years of age) were abducted…
– 19 girls and 7 boys were forced into two vans,
driven around for 11 hours and then forced into a
moving van buried in a nearby rock quarry
– After 16 hours they dug themselves out
– After the rescue, Ray mentioned that he had seen
a license plate of one of the vans but couldn’t
recall any of the numbers
• Under hypnosis, he was able to recall all but
one of the digits – with this crucial
information the kidnappers were tracked
down
Unfortunately…
• Most hypnotized witnesses respond with
new but incorrect information
• It appears that hypnosis can impair
recall at least as often as it can improve
it
Can hypnosis force people to act
against their will???
• Orne and Evans (1965)
– 18 college students put randomly into one
of three groups…
• Group 1: Hypnotized
• Group 2: Not hypnotized but asked to pretend
• Group 3: Just asked to participate in
experiment
Orne and Evans (1965)
• All three groups were asked to perform
the following acts:
– Pick up a poisonous snake
– Put hands in fuming nitric acid
– Throw acid in the face of one of the
researchers
• What do you think happened?
Lets look at age regression…
• Is it real?
– True (1949): this researcher says yes
– Orne (1982): this researcher says no
Can hypnosis alleviate pain?
• Yes – this has been clearly established
in experiments…
– Hypnotized subjects report far less pain
than others when their arms are placed in
ice water
Why?
• 2 Theories
– Selective Attention Theory
– Dissociation Theory
Selective Attention Theory
• We feel little or no pain because our
thoughts are away from it – like an
injured athlete who still completes the
play…
Dissociation Theory:
A divided consciousness?
• A dissociation or split between different
levels of consciousness – dissociating
the sensation of pain with our
emotional suffering
• Hilgard (1986)
– “the hidden observer”
Reports of Pain in Hypnosis
Is hypnosis an altered state of
consciousness?
• Some psychologists say yes
– It is a special state of consciousness characterized by a
greatly increased suggestibility
• Other psychologists say no
– They emphasize similarities between a hypnotic state and a
wakeful, conscious state
– There is an awareness of surroundings and others
• A social influence as well???
– If they like and trust hypnotist they feel motivated to do well
• Some say the subjects are faking it and others say
they are controlled by the hypnotist…you make the
call
Drugs and Consciousness:
Altering consciousness with drugs
• In this final section on states of consciousness,
we will discuss some of the chemicals that alter
consciousness by inducing changes in
perception, mood, or behavior
– Because of their ability to alter psychological
processes, these chemicals are referred to as
psychoactive drugs
Altering consciousness with drugs…
• Psychoactive drugs are taken to achieve
a state of consciousness the user
considers to be positive, pleasant, even
euphoric
– No reasonable person would take a drug
because he or she expected to have a
negative or unpleasant experience
• Unfortunately, this is sometimes the
case
Psychoactive Drugs
• Any substance that alters:
– Mood
– Awareness of the external environment
– Awareness of the internal environment
• Examples:
– Marijuana, LSD, cocaine, heroine, alcohol,
nicotine, codeine, caffeine, etc.
Factors that influence the effects of drugs
• Dose-dependent effects
– The amount of the drug influences its effect
• Its intensity
• The kind of effect it has on the person
• Tolerance
• Refers to the lessened effect the drug will
produce with continued usage
– Cross-tolerance
• Can sometimes occur when one takes a certain
drug that then produces a tolerance in another
drug of that type
– Example: alcohol can produce a tolerance
for antianxiety drugs
Factors that influence the effects of drugs
• Interaction effects
– The effects of some drugs can be drastically altered if they
are taken in combination with other drugs
– The combination is often greater than what one might think
the sum of the two drugs would be
• Individual differences
– Chemical, personality, and experience differences will often
cause the same dosage of a drug to produce much different
effects depending on the individual who is taking it
• Expectations
– Psychological factor is often present as individuals
sometimes produce the effect that they expect the drug will
produce
Factors that influence the effects of drugs
• Examples
– People often get “drunk” on O’Douls
– Saline solution often stops pain in those thinking
they are receiving a pain killer
– Subjects catch fewer colds because they believe
they are receiving huge doses of vitamin C, when
in fact they are getting only small amounts of
powdered sugar.
• When the research study ends and they no
longer receive the placebo, the number of colds
caught has been shown to go back up
Types of Psychoactive Drugs
• Depressants
– Reduce physiological arousal and help individuals
to relax
• Opiates
– Have the effect of dulling or numbing the senses
– Can produce a sleeplike state
• Stimulants
– Increase arousal
– Produce states of arousal
• Hallucinogens
– Distort sensory experience
Depressants
• Alcohol
• Barbituates
• Benzodiazephines
Alcohol
• Alcohol is a depressant yet we often
feel lively after a couple of drinks…
– It gives this feeling by slowing down the
brain centers that control judgments and
inhibitions
Curious Effects
• Memory
• Sex
• Hangover
Alcoholism
• Refers to one’s dependence on alcohol that
seriously interferes with one’s life
• Most common and costly form of drug abuse
in U.S.
• Aproximately 7% of adults 18 and over (10M
people)
• Traditionally more common (about 2 to 1)
among males but recent research suggests
that women are closing this gap
Detrimental Effects
• Life span of average alcoholic is 12 years
shorter than the norm
• Alcoholism ranks as the third leading cause of
death in U.S.
• More than one-third suffer at least one
coexisting mental disorder
• Organic impairment such as brain shrinkage
occurs in a high proportion of alcoholics
• About 20% attempt suicide
• About 10% are successful
Symptoms of Alcohol Dependence
• Use alcohol to boost self-confidence and to
relax around others
• Drink to forget their problems or to relieve
stress
• Often are the ones who want “one more”
drink even when their friends have stopped
drinking
• After friends have left they drink with new
friends…often close the bar…stay past last call
• Get drunk without planning to
• Have blackouts
Symptoms of Alcohol Dependence
• Lie about their drinking, try to hide it,
sneak drinks at work or school
• Drink in the morning to cure a hangover
• May begin to have financial, work, or
family problems
• Complete loss of control
Treatments
• Rehab Centers
– Treatment centers where the addict is supervised 24/7
– Supervised detoxification period to eliminate drugs from our
bodies system
• Alcoholics Anonymous
– Self-help group
– Little research because of members anonymity but
indications are most don’t stick to it
– Need to go to regular meetings for it to work
– 90 meetings in first 90 days and then at least once per week
after that
• Antabuse
– A type of aversion therapy where usually a pill is taken that
will cause the patient to become sick whenever they drink
alcohol
Barbiturates
• Barbiturates are powerful depressants that
slow down the central nervous system
– Classified as sedative/hypnotics
• Once a very commonly used tranquilizer but
because they are highly habit-forming their
usage decreased
– They have effects similar to alcohol
– They depress sympathetic nervous system activity
– They have been used to induce sleep and reduce
anxiety
• In large doses, can lead to impaired memory
and judgment
Barbiturates
• Barbiturates and other sedative/hypnotics are
medically prescribed to treat sleeplessness,
anxiety, and tension, and to help prevent or
mitigate epileptic seizures
– Certain barbiturates are also used to induce anesthesia for
short surgical procedures or at the beginning of longer ones
– Because of the risks associated with barbiturate abuse, and
because new and safer drugs such as the benzodiazepines
are now available, barbiturates are less frequently prescribed
than in the past
– Nonetheless, they are still available both on prescription and
illegally
• Other names: barbs, barbies, downers,
goofballs
Barbiturates
• In low doses, barbiturates have a
tranquilizing effect
• Increased doses are hypnotic or sleepinducing
• still larger doses act as anticonvulsants and
anesthetics
• Barbiturates have been widely used as
sleeping pills…such use may lead to…
– psychological dependency
– physiological tolerance
– death by overdose (often the drug of choice for
those attempting suicide)
• Barbiturates do not relieve pain
Barbiturates
• What it feels like…
– Relaxation, peacefulness, sleepiness, pleasurable
intoxication, dizziness, inactivity, withdrawal,
interrupted thought processes, mood swing,
excitement, increased pain, hostility, depression,
anxiety, confusion, changed vision, intense
emotions, hangover
• Barbituates give a quick “high” but the
effects drop off and persist for a low
level for a longer duration
Barbiturates
• Besides having therapeutic uses, barbiturates
are often used for their pleasurably
intoxicating effects
• Some people take them in addition to alcohol,
or as a substitute
• Heavy users of other drugs sometimes turn to
them if their usual drugs are not available, or
to counteract the effects of large doses of
stimulants such as amphetamines or cocaine
Barbiturates
• Non-medical users often start taking barbiturates at
doses within a safe therapeutic range
– As tolerance develops, however, they progressively increase
their daily dose to many times the original
– It is extremely important to note that in spite of acquiring
tolerance to the intoxicating effects of barbiturates, the user
develops no tolerance to the lethal action of the drug
• Therefore, high doses could produce fatal
results even for tolerant abusers
• Taking barbiturates with other CNS depressants…
– e.g. alcohol; tranquillizers; such opioids as heroin, morphine,
meperidine (Demerol), codeine, or methadone; and
antihistamines (found in cold, cough, and allergy remedies)
can be extremely dangerous, even lethal
Benzodiazepines
• Benzodiazepines (commonly referred to as
benzos) are a more recent generation of
tranquilizers
– Some of the more common
benzodiazepines are: ativan, librium,
valium, and xanax
– They are usually prescribed by doctors to
treat anxiety and sleep problems, they can
also, be used to treat panic disorders and
muscle spasms, and occasionally used in
the treatment of epilepsy and alcohol
withdrawal
Benzodiazepines
• Heroin users tend to use benzos to help them
sleep or when they're trying to get off heroin
• Speed and ecstasy users use them to help
them sleep or when they're 'coming down‘
• Some people use them as their drug of
choice.
• Benzodiazepines affect the central nervous
system
– Like alcohol and heroin they are depressants, and
slowdown responses such as respiration, heart
rate, etc.
Short-Term Effects
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Relaxation
Drowsiness
Dizziness
Confusion
Mood swings
Common Long-term Effects
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Lethargy
Irritability
Nausea
Loss of sexual interest
Increased appetite
Increased weight
Opiates
• Derived from opium these drugs depress CNS
functioning
• Include: opium, morphine, codeine, and
heroin
• Have the effect of dulling or numbing the
senses…
– Pupils constrict
– Breathing slows
– User becomes lethargic
• For a few hours, such things as pain and
anxiety are replaced by blissful pleasure
But for bliss you pay the price…
• Unfortunately, the bliss is eventually replaced
by a gnawing craving for another fix
• The need for progressively larger doses will lead to
the physical anguish of withdrawal if use is
discontinued
– If the user has taken opiates regularly, the
withdrawal symptoms may appear after only a few
hours have passed since the last dose and peak
after 2-3 days
– The symptoms include aches, nausea, fever,
trembling, convulsions, sweating and shivering.
• For some…the ultimate price to pay is death by
overdose
But for bliss you pay the price…
• The path to addiction is insidious…
– When repeatedly flooded with these
artificial opiates – the brain stops
producing its own natural opiates
(endorphins)
– So, when the drug is withdrawn, the brain
lacks the normal level of these painkilling
neurotransmitters
• The result is the raw agony of
withdrawal
Opiates
• Opiates can be divided into natural and synthetic
opiates
• Natural opiates are derived from the opium poppy
– Morphine and codeine are made from raw opium
and can further be refined into heroin
– Synthetic opiates include methadone and
pethidine
• Opiates have been used as medicines for a long time
– Today, morphine is used as a pain relief
• Example: for terminally ill cancer patients
– Certain cough medicines and pain killers contain
codeine
On the street…
• Opium is sold as dark brown lumps or powder
– It is usually eaten or smoked
• Heroin, when sold at street, is usually diluted
with other powders (often with glucose) and
its color varies from white to brown
– The mixes contain a very varying amount of pure
heroin
– Heroin can be taken orally, intravenously or it can
be smoked
• Narcotic pain killers are sold as capsules,
tablets, liquid or suppositories
Its effects…
• The effects of opiates, like those of
other intoxicants, depend on:
– The user's state of mind and on the
company the user is in
– Whether an opiate is used on its own or
together with other intoxicants
– Whether the user is a novice or an
experienced user also has an influence on
the effects of the drug
Effects can be dangerous…
• Immediately after taking the drug the user
will experience a rush of euphoria
• Feelings of hunger and pain are suppressed,
along with sexual desire
• Novice users may also feel nauseous and
restless
• Higher doses will make the user feel warm,
his limbs feel heavy and his mouth dry
• The user will feel alternately alert and
drowsy…
Effects can be dangerous…
• At even higher doses the pupils become
constricted and the skin feels cold and
clammy and turns bluish
• A fatal respiratory failure may develop
• There is always a danger of an
overdose when the drug is bought on
the street as it is very difficult to
determine how strong the mixture is
Stimulants
• Increase arousal and cause states of
euphoria that are generally referred to
as highs
• The two most powerful that are
abused:
– Amphetamines
– Cocaine
Amphetamines
• SLANG TERMS
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uppers
ups
wake ups
bennies
dexies
black beauties
jollies
speed
• An amphetamine is a drug that is a
stimulant to the central nervous system
Amphetamines
• Amphetamines are colorless and may be
inhaled, injected, or swallowed…
– These drugs may be used medically to
treat depression, obesity, and other
conditions
• Amphetamines are also used non-medically
to:
– Avoid sleep
– Improve athletic performance
– Counter the effects of depressant drugs
IMMEDIATE EFFECTS
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Increased talkativeness
Increased aggressiveness
Increased breathing rate
Increased heart rate
Increased blood pressure
Reduced appetite
Dilated pupils
Visual hallucinations
Auditory hallucinations
EFFECTS OF LARGE DOSES
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Fever and sweating
Dry mouth
Headache
Paleness
Blurred vision
Dizziness
Irregular heartbeat
Tremors
Loss of coordination
Collapse
• Death may also occur due to burst blood
vessels in the brain, heart failure, or very high
fever
LONG-TERM EFFECTS
• Mental illness similar to paranoid
schizophrenia…
– Amphetamine Psychoses
• Delusions like those seen in paranoid
schizophrenia– the long-term effect of high
doses cause an overproduction of dopamine
• Malnutrition due to suppression of appetite
• Increased susceptibility to illness due to poor
diet, lack of sleep and unhealthy environment
• Violence and aggression
• Multiple drug users may use other drugs to
counter unwanted side effects of
amphetamines
LONG-TERM EFFECTS
• Infections resulting from IV injections
• Blockage of blood vessels
• Tolerance and dependence
WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS
• Amphetamines are addictive
– Because of this, when the user
discontinues use or reduces the amount
he/she uses, withdrawal symptoms may
occur
WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS
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Severe exhaustion
Deep sleep lasting from 24 to 48 hours
Psychotic reaction
Extreme hunger
Deep depression
Anxiety reactions
Long but disturbed sleep
Cocaine
• Effects are similar to amphetamines but
the rush is much more intense…
– SLANG TERMS
• Coke
• Crack
• Dust
• Snow
• Blow
• Flakes
• Bloke
• Bernice
• Dream
Cocaine
• Cocaine is an addictive substance which
comes from coca leaves or is made
synthetically
– This drug acts as a stimulant to the central
nervous system
– Cocaine appears as a white powder substance
which is inhaled, injected, freebased (smoked), or
applied directly to the nasal membrane or gums
– Cocaine gives the user a tremendous "rush“
– These chemicals trick the brain into feeling it has
experienced pleasure
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
• Increased
– Heart Rate
– Breathing
– Blood pressure
• Nausea
• Weight loss
• Tremors
• Insomnia
• Rapid breathing
• Twitching
• Fever
• Paleness
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
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Sexual problems (impotence)
Dilated pupils
Cold sweats
Fatigue
Constipation
Headaches
Blurred vision
Seizures
Nasal congestion
PERSONALITY EFFECTS
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Lying
Stealing
Superior attitude
Less ambition
Argumentativeness/short temper
Job problems
Denial of responsibility
Depression
PERSONALITY EFFECTS
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Confusion
Increased number of accidents
Hallucinations
Anxiety
Paranoia
Poor concentration
Loss of interest in sex
Flattened and dulled emotions
HEALTH PROBLEMS
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Ulceration of the nasal membrane
Cardiac arrest
Respiratory arrest
Physiological seizures
Lung damage
Addiction
• The effects of cocaine occur within the first
few minutes, peak in 15-20 minutes and
disappear in about 1 hour
• The immediate effects are what make cocaine
so addicting
• The user is willing to endure the lows in order
to experience the highs.
• Cocaine is highly addictive
• Every use of the drug makes the addiction
stronger
Addiction
• This addiction can begin almost immediately following
the first use
• The addiction to cocaine is very strong, therefore,
withdrawal symptoms are likely to occur when a person
is not using the drug…
– Extreme irritability
– Sluggishness
– Nausea
– Disorganized thinking
– Extreme irritability
– Sluggishness
– Nausea
– Disorganized thinking
Hallucinogens
• Marijuana
• LSD
• PCP
Marijuana
• About 1 in 3 Americans has used
marijuana at least once and
approximately 10% of the population
uses it on a regular basis
• Next to tobacco and alcohol, marijuana
is the most popular substance chosen
by young people for regular use
Marijuana
• Triggers a mixture of effects that
makes this drug difficult to
classify…
– Like alcohol it has a depressant effect…
• It relaxes, disinhibits, impairs motor
coordination
– It is also a mild hallucinogen
• It can slow the passage of time and
amplify one’s sensitivity to colors,
sounds, tastes, and smells
Marijuana
• Dried leaves of the cannabis plant
• Usually smoked, but can be eaten in
cookies, candy or brownies
• Marijuana’s effects vary widely from
person to person
– Mood swings from “placid dreaminess to
euphoric gaiety”
– Negative mood swings are rare
Marijuana
• Effects cognition…
– Users believe that things are more
interesting, more profound, that they are
more creative
• Research has shown this is not the case
– Increased distractibility
– Decline in short term memory
Marijuana
• Very quickly absorbed into the bloodstream
when smoked
• Takes longer when eaten, but the effects last
longer as well
• Effects physical coordination and perceptual
abilities
– Not much different than alcohol when it comes to
driving…probably should stay away from heavy
equipment too…
LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide)
• Causes a disruption of serotonin brain
receptors and this leads to
hallucinations
• It comes in a variety of forms but is
virtually always taken orally
Effects
• Onset
– Generally 20-60 min.
• Duration
– Primary effects last 6-8 hrs.
• Experience
– Beginning is a sort of anticipation, then a slight
energy surge, something is different feeling, lights
may seem to have an extra twinkle, then effects get
stronger – feelings of insight, confusion, paranoia,
and quickly changes emotions (happiness to fear to
joy to irritation, etc)
Problems
• Although a euphoric state is often achieved,
LSD users must be prepared for a “bad trip”…
– Recent experiences such as unsettling events
during the day can blossom into more serious
distress and trauma while tripping
– A “bad trip” can produce vividly, terrifying
images…so much so that its possible for someone
to jump out of a window in order to get away
from these images
– Very important for these drug users to take
precautions so that tragedies can be averted
Problems
• Post-hallucinogen perceptual disorder
– At least 5% of LSD users experience LSD
flashbacks…
– Sudden, uncontrollable recurrences of perceptual
distortions like those experienced on a “trip”
– Person “freaks out” because they have no clue
what is happening to them
– May become chronically anxious because of this
– Seems that the drug is stored somewhere in the
body and later released
• Using LSD can result in chromosomal damage
Problems
• Some people become psychologically
dependent on LSD
– Not usually physiologically addictive though
PCP (Phencyclidine)
• Commonly referred to as “angel dust” this
substance is often sprinkled over dried
parsley, oregano, or marijuana leaves, it can
be smoked and effects noted within 2 to 5
minutes, then peaking at 15 to 30 minutes
• Taken orally, in the pill form or mixed with
food or beverages, PCP's effects are usually
noted within 30 minutes and tend to peak at
about 2 to 5 hours
Angel Dust
• Lower doses of PCP typically produce euphoria and
decreased inhibition as may be seen with
drunkenness
• Mid-range doses cause body wide anesthetic with
enhanced sensations and impaired perceptions which
may result in panic reactions and violent defensive
behaviors
• Large doses may produce paranoia, auditory
hallucinations, psychosis similar to schizophrenia
• Massive doses, more commonly associated with
ingesting the drug, may cause cardiac arrhythmias,
seizures, muscle rigidity, acute renal failure, and
death
– Because of the analgesic properties of PCP, users who incur
significant injuries may not feel any pain
Near-Death Experiences…do we
really have them???
• Gallup (1982)
– Huge nationwide survey
– 15% reported having a close brush with
death
– One-third of these (8 million people) reported
having a mystical experience in connection
with it
Siegel (1977)
• Many similarities between “near-death”
experiences and typical hallucinogenic
experiences
– Visions of tunnels or funnels
– Bright lights
– Beings of light
– Replay of old memories
– Out-of-body sensations
Near-Death Experiences
• Often, oxygen deprivation is occurring during
injuries to the brain – these are known to
produce hallucinations
• Since reports are always of a positive nature…
• Interesting note:
– Some researchers have interviewed people who
have experienced both and say that these people
deny their similarities
– In addition, those in the near-death experience
are permanently changed by the experience which
is not the case with hallucinations
– They usually become kinder, more spiritual people