CAP Mission Aircrew
Observer Course
Introduction
Administrative Items
Mission Observer
Requirements

Trainee
•
•
•
•
•

Qualified General Emergency Services (GES)
Qualified as Mission Scanner
At least 18 years of age (minimum; should be mature)
101T-MO familiarization and preparatory training
Commanders authorization
Qualification
•
•
•
•
101T-MO requirements
Complete Basic Communications User Training and Task L-001
Exercise participation (two separate missions)
Unit certification and recommendation
CAPR 60-series Review
Observer Duties & Responsibilities









Primary Responsibility during searches: Visual Search
Report for briefings
Assist in planning – may be mission commander
Check necessary equipment aboard (checklists)
Assist in avoiding obstacles during taxiing
Assist in setting up and operating radios
Assist in setting up and operating nav equipment
Maintain situational awareness
Assist in monitoring fuel status
Observer Duties & Responsibilities
(continued)
 Assist
enforcing the sterile cockpit rules
 Assist pilot during searches, particularly ELT
 Keep mission base/high bird appraised of
status
 Coordinate scanner assignments, schedule
breaks, monitor crew for fatigue & dehydration
 Maintain observer’s log
 Report for debriefing
 Assist with all post-mission paperwork
 Keep track of assigned equipment and
supplies
Observers Log
Observer Log
Aircraft

Provides a record of
the flight
Departure Pt.
Check Points
Pilot
Observer
Mission
Date
Destination
Total Dist ETE
Takeoff Time
Fuel
Ident
Freq
Mag
Hdg
Dist
Ground
Speed
ETE
Remain
ETA
ATA
Fuel
Remain
• Preflight calculations
• Record of observations




Basis for debriefing
Used to complete CAPF 104
Information is forwarded to mission staff to guide
mission management
Good logs can be combined from several sorties to
give the mission staff a better picture of how the
search is going
Inflight Observations
Time
Observation
Forms
CAPF 100
 CAPF 101
 CAPF 101Ts
 CAPF 104
 CAPF 108

CAPF 104
Mission
Briefing/Debriefing
(Front)
CAPF 104
(Reverse)
FAA Flight Plan

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
FAA Form 7233-1
(FAA USE ONLY)
PILOT BRIEFING
VFR
IFR
DVFR
2. AIRCRAFT
IDENTIFICATION
TIME STARTED
SPECIALIST
INITIALS
STOPOVER
FLIGHT PLAN
1. TYPE
VNR
3. AIRCRAFT TYPE/
SPECIAL EQUIPMENT
4. TRUE
AIRSPEED
5. DEPARTURE POINT
6. DEPARTURE TIME
PROPOSED (Z)
ACTUAL (Z)
7. CRUISING
ALTITUDE
CPF 4239
KTS
8. ROUTE OF FLIGHT
9. DESTINATION (Name of airport
and city)
12. FUEL ON BOARD
HOURS
10. EST. TIME ENROUTE
HOURS
13. ALTERNATE AIRPORT(S)
MINUTES
11. REMARKS
N99545, CAP Flight
14. PILOTS NAME, ADDRESS, & TELEPHONE NUMBER & AIRCRAFT HOME BASE
MINUTES
15. NUMBER
ABOARD
17. DESTINATION CONTACT / TELEPHONE (OPTIONAL)
16. COLOR OF AIRCRAFT
FAA Form 7233-1 (8-82)
CIVIL AIRCRAFT PILOTS, FAR Part 91 requires you file an IFR flight plan to operate under instrument flight rules in
controlled airspace. Failure to file could result in a civil penalty not to exceed $1,000 for each violation (Section 901 of the
Federal Aviation Act of 1958 as amended
CLOSE VFR FLIGHT PLAN WITH ________________FSS ON ARRIVAL
Flight Plans and Forms
Summary
Forms are important!
 Complete, accurate and legible
 Label attachments



You implement the CAP mission
Know the source regulations
• CAPR 60-1 (flying operations)
• CAPR 60-3
• CAPR 60-4
• MOUs
Records for your Aircrew File
(Optional but Recommended)







Current CAP Membership card
Current CAP 101 card
Current CPR, Basic Care, Bloodborne Pathogens cards
CAP Communications certificate (CAPF 76, if held)
Award of Aeronautical Rating (CAPF 2a)
Emergency Notification Data (CAPF 60)
Total Scanner/Observer hours (photocopy from your
logbook)
Remember to check the credentials
of non-CAP passengers (center)
Communications
(Chapter 4)
Objectives
Throughout
these slides, each objective
is followed by:
 The
mission specialty rating to which the
objective applies (S = Scanner; O =
Observer; P = Pilot)
 The section in the Aircrew Reference Text
where the answer to the objective may be
found
Objectives
Describe how to use the Audio Panel and FM
radio. {O & P; 4.1.2 & 4.1.3}
 Describe how to recognize a stuck mike, and
corrective actions. {O; 4.1.5}
 Discuss CAP FM radio reports {O & P; 4.1.6}

• List the minimum required reports

Discuss in-flight services {O; 4.3}
•
•
•
•
Flight Service Station (FSS) purpose and how to contact
ATIS information and how to obtain it
AWOS/ASOS information and how to obtain it
The importance of PIREP’s
Using the Audio Panel





On/Off, Volume control
Mic Selector switch and receiver switches
Split mode
Swap mode
Intercom mode
Audio Panel
Transmitter combinations
Intercom
modes
Using the FM Radio


Main and Guard (squelch is automatic)
Normal settings:
•
•
•
•
•
•
MN
G1
HI
4 or 6 to scroll through frequencies
5 Scan (if enabled)
2 (increase brightness) and 8 (decrease brightness)
Using the FM Radio




Volume controls (Guard is receive only)
Main usually set to ‘004’ (Air-to-Ground – 149.5375 MHz)
Normally G1 (Air-to-Ground) [G2 is Primary – 148.15 MHz]
If base wants to call you, you will hear them no matter
what (Main) frequency you’re on
• Just take MN/GD switch to GD, answer, then back to MN
Stuck Mike
Can block transmissions
 Indications:

•
•
•
•

The ‘T’ symbol remains illuminated
The transmit (TX) LED on the PMA7000M-S is on continuously
You don’t receive a reply to your transmission
Difference in radio background noise
Try re-keying the microphone or turning the
radio off and then back on
FM Radio Reports


Radio check (initial flight of the day)
Minimum required reports:
•
•
•
•

Take-off time (wheels up)
Time entering search area
Time exiting search area
Landing time (wheels down)
Operations normal (Ops Normal) reports
• Defined during briefing, usually every one-half hour
COMMUNICATIONS
The radio is the primary link to the ATC
system
 The most important part of pilot-controller
communications is understanding
 Brevity is important
 Professionalism is important; it enhances
safety and brings you better service

TECHNIQUE
 Check
for proper frequency
 Check volume
 Mentally compose message before
transmitting
 Listen before transmitting
 Key mike, pause briefly before talking
MESSAGE FORMAT
Who
*Who you are calling
*Who you are
 Where
*Your location
 What
*Your request

CAP Aircraft Callsigns
CAP
has the FAA authorized callsign
“CAP Flight”
FAA callsigns are stated in ‘group’
form
CPF 4239 is stated as “CAP Flight
Forty-Two Thirty-Nine”
AIM 4-2-4.a.5 and FAA 7110.65
CAP AIRCRAFT CALLSIGNS
CAP aircraft should only use the
word “Rescue” in their callsign
when priority handling is critical
“CAP Flight Forty-Two Thirty-Nine
Rescue”
 DO NOT abuse this!

In-Flight Services - FSS
Flight Service Stations (FSS) provide weather
information before and after takeoff
 Some FSS provide transcribed weather briefings
 FSS can provide assistance to a pilot who has
temporarily misplaced himself (i.e., he’s lost)
 FSS having voice services on VOR or NDB
broadcast at 15 minutes after the hour

• Weather reports and advisories
• Pilot and radar reports
• Alerts and Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)
In-Flight Services - ATIS
Broadcast continuously (taped)
 Actual weather information, updated hourly or
when special conditions warrant
 Frequency found on sectional or in A/FD

In-Flight Services - AWOS
Automated Weather Observation System
 On sectional by airport name
 Transmitted UHF or on navaid
 Real time information includes:

•
•
•
•
•
Location and time
Wind speed, direction and gusts
Temperature and dew point
Altimeter setting
Density altitude when it exceeds field elevation by 1000’
• Can go to www.anyAWOS.com or call 800-any-awos
In-Flight Services - ASOS
Automated Surface Observing System
 On sectional by airport name
 Transmitted VHF or on navaid; also telephone
 Real time information may include:

•
•
•
•
•
•
Location and time
Wind speed, direction and gusts
Visibility and cloud height
Temperature and dew point
Altimeter setting
Density altitude when it exceeds field elevation by 1000’
In-Flight Services – PIREP’s
Pilot Weather Reports
 Very useful to other pilots
 Information should include:

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Type of aircraft (Cessna 172)
Location (usually in relation to a VOR)
Cloud bases, tops and layers
Flight visibility
Precipitation
Visibility restrictions (e.g., smoke, haze and dust)
Temperature and wind
QUESTIONS?
Weather
(Chapter 6)
Objectives
Discuss how convection currents affect aircraft
glide path. {O; 6.1.3}
 Discuss wind patterns around high- and lowpressure areas. {O; 6.1.5}
 Define “freezing level” and “lapse rate”
{O; 6.2.1}
 Discuss airframe icing and its affect on aircraft
performance. {O; 6.2.2}
 Discuss carburetor icing and its affect on aircraft
performance. {O; 6.2.3}

Objectives (con’t)
Discuss the characteristics of cold, unstable air
masses and warm, stable air masses. {O; 6.3}
 Concerning reduced visibility conditions, state
the minimums for: {O; 6.4}

• VFR visibility
• Cloud bases when they cover one-half the sky
• How far aircraft must remain below cloud cover
Discuss the dangers of windshear. {O; 6.6}
 Describe the ‘stages’ of a typical thunderstorm
and discuss the dangers of flying too close.
{O; 6.7}

Weather
The most important aspect of weather is its
impact on flight conditions
 Safety is paramount
 Navigation — Visual verses Instruments
 Effects on Search

• Prevailing visibility
• Search visibility
• Search patterns and altitudes

Information — National Weather Service,
Flight Service Stations, Flight Watch, PIREP’s
Weather — Circulation
Weather — Circulation
The earth rotates
 Air moving north is pulled
toward the east
 This builds a high pressure
belt about 30 degrees
latitude
 The northerly air flow cools
and starts southward
 These large circulations
are responsible for mixing
the air and most weather

Circulation Around a High
H
Circulation Around a Low
L
Upward Convection Currents



Terrain which heats up creates updrafts
Updrafts tend to keep you from descending
Normally where there are updrafts there are also
downdrafts
EFFECT OF CONVECTION CURRENTS
NORMAL GLIDE PATH
ROCKY TERRAIN
PLOUGHED GROUND
PAVED ROAD
Downward Convection Currents
Terrain which remains cool up creates
downdrafts
 Downdrafts cause you to descend

GLIDE PATH DUE TO CONVECTION CURRENTS
NORMAL GLIDE PATH
RIVER
GROWING FIELDS
LANDING FIELD
Terms

As altitude increases the temperature decreases
at a fairly uniform rate of 3.6 degrees F per 1000
feet; this is known as lapse rate
• Use this on hot days to determine how high you should climb
to get to a comfortable temperature

At some altitude the air temperature reaches the
freezing temperature of water; the freezing level
Icing
Frost
 Snow
 Icing

Rime ice is rougher
Lift
Decreases
Drag
Increases
Thrust
Decreases
Weight
Increases
Glaze ice is clearer
• Airframe
(lift & weight)
• Carburetor
Causes of Frontal Activity
COLD POLAR AIR
DRY AIR
TROPICAL MOIST AIR
Warm Front
WARM AIR
Cirrus
Cirrostratus
Altostratus
COLD AIR
Nimbostratus
St Louis
Indianapolis
Columbus
Pittsburgh
Cold Front
COLD AIR
St Louis
Cumulonimbus
Indianapolis
WARM AIR
Columbus
Pittsburgh
Occluded Front
Cirrus
Cumulonimbus
WARM AIR
Nimbostratus
Cirrostratus
Altostratus
COLD AIR
COLD AIR
St Louis
Indianapolis
Columbus
Pittsburgh
Reduced Visibility

Under almost all circumstances, VFR daytime
flight requires:
• At least three miles visibility
• When clouds cover more than one-half the sky, cloud
bases must be no lower than 1,000 ft. AGL
• Search aircraft must usually remain at least 500 ft. below
the cloud deck

There are exceptions: ask your PIC
Reduced Visibility
Fog
 Haze
 Snow
 White out
 Blowing dust
 Affected by sun angle and direction


Aircrew must increase vigilance during these
conditions
Turbulence
Planning flight around
high terrain requires
special care
 Wind currents on the
downwind side can
be very strong
 Ridges and peaks
should be cleared by
at least 2000 feet

Flight Path
2000 ft.
Wind
Wind Shear

Thunderstorms

Fronts - wind
shear may
advance as far
as 15 nm

Air flow around
obstacles
Windward
Wind Shear

Two potentially hazardous situations,
dangerous mainly during landing:
• Tailwind turns calm or to a headwind
• Headwind turns calm or to a tailwind

Pilot must adjust quickly
Weather — Thunderstorms
Cumulus Stage
Mature Stage
Dissipating Stage
Radio Services
Flight Service Station (FSS)
 Flight Watch (122.0)
 Automatic Terminal Information Service(ATIS)
 Transcribed weather broadcasts (TWEB)
 Scheduled weather broadcasts

• Fifteen minutes after the hour
• Alerts, hourly weather, Advisory, Pilot Reports, Radar

Pilot Weather Reports (PIREP)
QUESTIONS?
High Altitude and
Terrain Considerations
(Chapter 7)
Objectives

Concerning atmospheric pressure: {O; 7.1}
• State the pressure at sea level, and describe how to
compensate for ‘other-than-sea level pressures’ when setting
the altimeter
• Discuss the three factors that affect the density of an air mass.
• Define density altitude

State the phases of flight affected by a decrease
in atmospheric pressure, and how aircraft
performance is affected. {O; 7.2}
Objectives
Discuss strategies to compensate for high DA
during searches. {O; 7.2.1}
 Discuss mountainous terrain precautions and
strategies. {O; 7.4}

Atmospheric Pressure
A barometer is used to register changes in
pressure; measured in inches of mercury
 Standard sea-level pressure and temperature:

• 29.92 inches of mercury
• 59 degrees F (15 degrees C)
A change of 1000 feet in elevation makes a
change of about one inch
 To correct for local elevation, set altimeter to
latest reading (ATIS/AWOS/ASOS/FSS) or enter
field elevation

Density Altitude

Three factors:
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Humidity



Altitude and pressure combined to determine pressure
altitude
Add non-standard temperature to get density altitude
Pilots calculate (next slides) or can get on ASOS
Density
Altitude
Flight Computer

Circular slide rule
•
•
•
•
Density altitude
Nautical to statute miles
True airspeed
Other stuff
Aircraft Performance
 Density
altitude and aircraft weight have
a tremendous effect on aircraft
performance
 Both must be accurately calculated,
especially for mountain flying missions
Pressure vs. Performance

As altitude increases pressure decreases; this
decrease can have a pronounced effect on
flight:
• Engine (hp) and prop are less efficient
• Take off distance, climb rate, and landing distance effected
Take off distance almost doubles with a 5000
foot elevation increase
 Rate of climb slows with higher elevation
 Landing distance increases with higher elevation
 Higher Humidity, Heat or Height result in reduced
aircraft performance

Reduced Performance
Strategies
Don’t fly at high elevation during the hottest part
of the day
 Carefully calculate DA and weight
 Reduce load:

• Less fuel
• Crew of three instead of four
• Less baggage
 Remember
“High to Low, Look out Below” (update
altimeter setting hourly)

If you fly in the mountains, take the Mountain
Fury Course
Flight Near Mountainous
Terrain
Crews must be constantly careful that the search
never takes them over terrain that rises faster
than the airplane can climb. Narrow valleys or
canyons that have rising floors must be avoided,
unless the aircraft can be flown from the end of
higher elevation to the lower end, or the pilot is
certain that the aircraft can climb faster than the
terrain rises. Careful chart study by the crew
prior to flight will help identify this dangerous
terrain.
 If you fly in the mountains, take the Mountain
Fury Course

Flight Near Mountainous
Terrain
Flight Near Mountainous
Terrain
Flight Near Mountainous
Terrain
Fli ght Path
2000 ft.
Wind
QUESTIONS?
Navigation and
Position Determination
(Chapter 8)
Objectives
Discuss considerations for operating near
controlled airports, and identify them on a
sectional. {O; 8.4}
 Discuss the following special use airspaces, and
identify them on a sectional:

• Prohibited and Restricted Areas {O; 8.4.1}
• Military operating areas and training routes {O; 8.4.2}

Discuss the use and limitations of the following:
•
•
•
•
ADF {O; 8.1}
VOR {O; 8.2}
DME {O; 8.3}
GPS {O; 8.5}
Objectives (Con’t)

Given a sectional chart, a plotter, and two airports:
{O; 8.8.1}
• Plot the course
• Identify check points along the route
• Calculate how long it should take to get from one airport to the
other, flying at 100 kts with no wind


Given Attachment E of the U.S. National SAR Supplement
to the International Aeronautical and Maritime SAR
Manual, grid a sectional. {O & P; 8.10.1 and Attachment 1}
Given coordinates and a sectional, use the Standardized
Latitude and Longitude Gird System to draw a search grid.
{O & P; 8.11}
BAK
North
BAK
South
Electronic Aids to
Navigation
Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range
(VOR)
 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
 Long Range Navigation (LORAN)
 Global Positioning System (GPS)

ADF

Automatic
Direction
Finding
Oldest system
 Fair accuracy
 Low cost
 Homing only

Aircraft
headed
North
Needle always points
toward the station
Using ADF to
determine position

Automatic
Direction
Finding
ADF
 Oldest system
 Fair accuracy
 Low cost
 Homing only
VOR

Very High Frequency
Omnidirectional
Ranging
VOR
Very common
 Most air routes
defined by VORs
 Good Accuracy

Radial
VOR provides heading and
course deviation indication
VOR
VOR
Using the VOR to
determine position
Turn the OBS knob
until the needle
centers with a
FROM flag
 Read the bearing
from the station
directly at the top
 Plot the bearing on
the chart

Keeping Track of Position
DME
Distance
Measuring
Equipment
 TACAN or
VORTAC
 Very Accurate
when flying
directly
towards

Slant range
Ground Range
DME
LORAN
Low Frequency
Omnidirectional
Radio
Aided
Navigation
 Accurate
 Aircraft & Ships
 Susceptible to
precipitation;
western
coverage
spotty

S
M
S
M
S
S
S
M
M
M
S
M
Master Station
S
Secondary Station
S
S
S
M
S
GPS
Global
Positioning
System
 24 Satellites
 GPS receiver
 Very accurate

Position Determination

Sectional or Map
• Work from larger to smaller
• Work from a known location
to present location
• Watch the scale on maps
• Remain suspicious if all points
don’t seem to line up right
• Use groups of 3
characteristics to verify
position
Sectional Aeronautical Charts



1 to 500,000
Medium to slow speed aircraft
Types of Information: Legend, Aeronautical, Topographical
Standardized Lat/Long
Grid System
This system does
not require special
numbering
 Lat-long of lower
right corner
defines the grid
(latitude first)
 Letters are used to
define sub-grids

36/102 AA 36/102 ADB
103-00 W
102-00 W
37-00 N
A
C
B
A
B
C
D
B
36-30 N
102-45 W
D
C
36-00 N
102-30 W
103-00 W
102-00 W
Know Your Chart Symbols
QUESTIONS?
Search Planning
and Coverage
(Chapter 9)
Objectives
In basic terms, discuss how search planners
determine the Maximum Area of Probability and
then the Probability Area. {O; 9.2.1 & 9.2.2}
 Given a POD table, discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of various search altitudes and
speeds over the three major types of terrain.
{O; 9.2.3}
 Discuss the importance of proper execution of
search patterns. {O; 9.2.4}

Objectives

Optional – Review POD example {9.3}
Narrowing the Search

Search Involves
• Estimating the position of the wreck or survivors
• Determining the area to be searched
• Selecting the search techniques to be used

Maximum Possibility Area
• Circle around the Last Known Position (LKP)
• The radius is equal to the endurance of the aircraft
• Correct for wind

Probability Area
• Where is the aircraft likely to be
Search Factors

Factors which effect detection
•
•
•
•
•

Weather; terrain; lighting conditions
Sweep Width (W)
Track Spacing (S)
Coverage Factor (C)
Probability of Detection (P)
Determine factors for search area coverage
• Type and number of aircraft available
• Search visibility

Probability Of Detection (POD)
Determining the Maximum
Possibility Area
No wind endurance
Flight level winds: 330/20
Aircraft Speed:
100 Kts
Endurance:
2 Hours
LKP
Wind vector
Maximum possibility area
200 NM
Corrected for wind
Probability Area
Where was the last point where radar had the
aircraft identified?
 Is there an ELT?
 Was there a flight plan (even if not on file with
the FAA)?
 Dead reckoning from LKP and heading
 Reports of sightings

• Other aircraft
• People living along the intended route of flight
Narrowing the Probability
Area










Flight plan
Weather information
National Track Analysis Program data
Airports along the intended flight track
Aircraft performance
Pilots flying habits
Radar coverage as a limiting factor
Nature of terrain along the flight track
Position reports — fuel stops, etc.
Most likely within 5 miles of intended track
Search Priorities
Areas of bad weather
 Low clouds and poor visibility
 Areas where weather was not as forecast
 High terrain
 Areas not covered by radar
 Reports of low flying aircraft
 Survival factors
 Radio contacts or MAYDAY calls

Probability of Detection
(POD)
POD expressed as a “percent” search object
was detected
 Four interrelated factors used to calculate:

•
•
•
•
Track Spacing
Search Visibility
Search Altitude
Type of Terrain
Cumulative POD calculated using a chart
 “Effectiveness” must also be considered

POD Table
(back of 104)
POD Chart - detail
OPEN, FLAT TERRAIN
SEARCH ALTITUDE (AGL)
SEARCH VISIBILITY
Track Spacing
1 mi
2 mi
3 mi
4 mi
500 Feet
0.5 nm
35%
60%
75%
75%
1.0
20
35
50
50
1.5
15
25
35
40
2.0
10
20
30
30
700 Feet
0.5 nm
40%
60%
75%
80%
1.0
20
35
50
55
1.5
15
25
40
40
2.0
10
20
30
35
1,000 Feet
0.5 nm
40%
65%
80%
85%
1.0
25
40
55
60
1.5
15
30
40
45
2.0
15
20
30
35
Cumulative POD Chart
Previous
POD
5-10%
11-20%
21-30%
31-40%
41-50%
51-60%
61-70%
71-80%
80+%
15
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
85
25
35
45
55
65
70
80
85
45
50
60
65
75
80
90
60
65
70
80
85
90
70
75
80
85
90
80
85
90
95
90
90
95
95
95
95+
5-10% 11-20% 21-30% 31-40% 41-50% 51-60% 61-70% 71-80% 80+%
POD For This Search
QUESTIONS?
Electronic Search
Patterns
(Chapter 10)
Objectives
Discuss the various types of ELTs. {O; 10.1.1}
 Describe how an ELT can be detected. {O; 10.2}
 Describe how the aircraft DF works in both the
Alarm and DF modes. {O; 10.3.1}
 Discuss using the DF during a typical ELT search
{O; 10.3.2}

• Response during initial phase, including signal fade
• Response when getting close
• Response as you pass over the beacon
Objectives

Describe the following ELT search methods:
{O; 10.4 – 10.7}
•
•
•
•
Homing
Wing null
Aural
Signal
Discuss signal reflection and interference.
{O; 10.9}
 Describe how to silence an ELT and the legal
issues involved. {O; 10.10}

Emergency Locator Transmitter
Direction Finding for Aircrews:
use of equipment commonly
found in CAP aircraft
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
114
Objective: The Elusive ELT

Automatic radio beacon (100 milliwatts)
• Roughly equal to that of a regular flashlight
 Can
be heard on a line-of-sight basis.
 Remember that the ELT may be attached
to an aircraft or vessel in distress!
Click Icon to
Hear an ELT
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
115
The ELT

Activated by g-force (when armed)
• Some can be activated by the pilot in the cockpit

Three frequencies:
• 121.5 MHz (VHF emergency)
• 243 MHz (UHF emergency – military guard)
• 406.025 MHz (third generation advanced ELT/EPIRB/PLB)

General types:
•
•
•
•
•
General aviation aircraft
Military (“beepers” or “beacons”)
Marine EPIRB
Test station (training practice beacon)
Advanced (406)
ELT Antenna
Most aircraft have ELTs installed
But they
don’t
always
survive a
crash
Most aircraft have ELTs installed
But they
don’t
always
survive a
crash
Military beacons
Most common type is the URT-33/C
 Personnel ejecting/parachuting will have a 243
MHz beacon
 Some downed pilots may be able to
communicate via two-way radio on 243 MHz
using a PRC-90 or later military survival radio

• Beacon mode transmits like an ELT on 243 MHz
Personal beacons

Personal Locator Beacon (PLB) or Personal
Emergency Transmitter (PET):
• Intended for hikers and other remote wilderness travelers
• Use a 406 MHz transmitter and a 121.5 MHz homing signal (at
only 25 milliwatts)
• Many are also equipped with a built-in GPS receiver that
provides lat/long coordinates
• Each PLB must be registered
• [See discussion of Advanced ELTs]
Marine EPIRB
Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon
 Similar to an ELT, an EPIRB is used on ships and
boats
 Mandatory on certain commercial vessels
 Some activate automatically and others are
manually activated

Advanced ELTs

Designed to operate with SARSAT/COSPAS
• 406.025 MHz beacons have data burst encoding that identifies
each (registered) individual beacon
• Also produces a 121.5 MHz homing signal and may transmit
GPS coordinates
• Sends a coded signal that can be used to obtain the owner's
name, address and type of aircraft, so AFRCC can call the
number to see if the aircraft is really missing (70% resolved)
• Since geostationary satellites process the signal it will be
heard more quickly and allow a much faster response (~ 6
hours). If the unit has a GPS receiver, it can transmit lat/long
coordinates to further speed the search. The signal can also
penetrate dense cover (e.g., trees).
• Still very expensive (~ three times as much as a 121.5 MHz ELT)
Practice Beacon

Training Practice Beacons
• Includes ones used by CAP
All should be converted from 121.6 to 121.775
MHz by now (if it isn’t, don’t use it)
 During practice searches, avoid calling the
practice beacon an ‘ELT’ when communicating
over the radio

• May cause confusion

Always use the term ‘Practice Beacon’
Testing an Aircraft ELT
Can test the aircraft’s ELT within the first five
minutes after each hour
 Only allowed up to three sweeps

When was the last time you tested the ELT in your
aircraft?
 Do you regularly monitor 121.5 MHz after you
land?

• Ensure your ELT didn’t activate
• This isn’t considered a test, by the way, but you can try this
excuse if you like
Inadvertent Activation
Excessively hard landings (Welcome aboard, Ensign!)
 Inadvertent change of switch position
 During removal/installation
 Malfunction
 Non-ELT source on 121.5 MHz (computers, broadcast
stations, even pizza ovens!)
 Monsieur Murphy

False Alarms

Approximately 97% of received ELT signals are
false alarms
• For 121.5 MHz ELTs abut 1 in 1000 are actual emergencies
(2 in 100 composite alerts)
• For 406 MHz ELTs abut 1 in 10 are actual emergencies

What’s the big deal?
• SARSAT can only monitor 10 ELTs at once
• Easy to overload the system
• They block emergency communications on 121.5 and 243
MHz (guarded by towers, ARTCC, and the military)
QUESTIONS?
Detection Timeline
Accuracy of
SARSAT/COSPAS

For a regular 121.5 MHz beacon:
• Said to be a 12-16 nautical mile radius (~ 452 square nm)
• Actually an oval shape with a 50% probability of being 15 nm
wide and 7 nm high
• System is more accurate North to South (latitude)
• Average six-hour detection/alert
For a 406 MHz beacon it’s a 1-3 nm radius (~ 12.4
square nm) with 45 – 60 minute detection/alert
 For a 406 MHz beacon with GPS it’s a 0.05 nm
radius (within 100 yards) with an average fiveminute detection/alert

OK, So How Should I Treat an
ELT Mission?
AS AN EMERGENCY!
 Its not possible to know whether an ELT signal is a
distress signal or a false alarm
 Although the statistics are against it, you must
act as though it is a distress call


If you take advantage of them, every ELT mission
allow you to keep your skills sharp!
Locating the ELT Signal
Route or parallel track to pick up the signal
 If no SARSAT hits or definitive LKP:

• 4,000 to 10,000 AGL
• Large track spacing (start at 60 nm, then do halves)

Once signal is located, DF the signal
Direction Finder (DF)
• A direction finder compares signal strengths from
two antenna patterns to let the user know:
– When you are “centered” on a signal
•headed directly towards OR away from from
the signal source
– Which direction to turn when not centered
– Similar to an ADF needle, but only points left or
right, hence the term “left-right homing”
L-Tronics DF
Normal: Alarm toggle in ‘up’ position
 DF: toggle is ‘down’

DF Antenna
These are mounted on the bottom, but
may be on top
Step 1: Acquire the Signal
To hear the signal you can use your L-Tronics
receiver or one of your comm radios
 To acquire with a comm radio, turn the
squelch OFF (pull out the volume knob out or flip the

appropriate switch)
• The static you hear may be annoying, but it will allow
you to hear the signal at the earliest possible time
• Allows for a weak or distant signal to be heard
 Proceed
at a reasonable altitude to the
SARSAT composite hit, or to the point
designated by your incident commander
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
137
Beginning The Search: Altitude
Selection





Higher altitudes allow for reception of the ELT signal at greater
distances
ELTs transmit on 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz, both of which limit
reception to “line of sight”
Terrain will block ELT signals
HIGHER is therefore usually BETTER to acquire a signal
Medium altitude is generally better for searching (after signal
heard)
• 3,000 to 5,000 AGL
NO
SIGNAL
SIGNAL
HEARD!
ELT
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
NO
SIGNAL
138
Altitude Selection
ELT RECEPTION DISTANCE
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
©2000 Scott
E. Lanis
DISTANCE,
Nautical
Miles
265
200
147
121
95
69
56
34
30
18
0
0
ALTITUDE, Feet AGL
40000
139
Step 2: Track (DF) the Signal

There are many different ways to DF an ELT
signal:
• Left-Right DF Homing (L-Tronics DF)
• Wing Shadow Method
• Aural Search
• Metered Search
• Combinations of the above techniques
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
140
Wing Shadowing

By flying the airplane in a circle, at some point the
wing will block the ELT signal to the receiver antenna
• This causes an audible decrease in volume, called a “null”
 Almost
any VHF-AM aircraft communications radio
may be used with this method
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
141
Wing Shadowing: Antennas
To properly use the Wing Shadowing method, you
MUST know where the antenna for the radio you
are using is installed & located on the aircraft
 Communications radio antennas are usually, but
not always, located above the wings

• Can be above the fuselage, in the tail, etc.

L-Tronics Aircraft DF antennas may be above or
below the aircraft
• Below the aircraft is the preferred installation
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
142
Communications Antennas
Above the Wing
Antennas Above
the Wing
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
143
DF Antennas Below the Wing
Antennas Below
the Wing
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
144
QUESTIONS?
How To DF by Wing Shadowing
Fly a constant bank angle
360° turn
 the audio will “null,”
 or get significantly quieter,
 when your wing blocks the
antenna’s reception of the
ELT signal

N
W
E
S
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
146
Wing Shadowing:
Signal Blocking
For Antennas Above the Wings
NULL
NULL
NULL
SIGNAL
ELT
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
147
Wing Shadowing:
Antennas Above the Wing
Turn in a circle until you hear the null
(significant decrease in volume)
 The ELT is 90º to your LEFT
 SUBTRACT 90º from your
heading

ELT
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
148
Wing Shadowing:
Signal Blocking
For Antennas Below the Wings
NULL
NULL
SIGNAL
ELT
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
149
Wing Shadowing:
Antennas Below the Wing
Turn in a circle until you hear the null
(significant decrease in volume)
 The ELT is 90º to your RIGHT: ADD 90º to your
heading

ELT
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
150
Aural (Hearing) Search Method







This is based on the assumption that the area of equal beacon
signal strength is circular: do NOT adjust volume during this
search; you will need it to determine equal levels of signal
Begin by plotting your position as soon as you receive the ELT
signal
Fly that course for a short distance, then turn 90º left or right and
proceed until the signal fades
Turn around (180º) and mark where the signal fades on the other
side of the circle
Plot chord lines similar to that of the diagram
Bisect the chord lines at a perpendicular
Plot a course to the location where the perpendicular lines
intersect: this should be the location of the target!
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
151
Aural Search
Equal signal strength circle:
barely audible signal in aircraft
receiver at search altitude
ELT
SIGNAL
HEARD
SIGNAL
FADES
chord 2
SIGNAL
HEARD
SIGNAL
FADES
SIGNAL
HEARD
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
152
Metered Search
(Build & Fade) Method







This search requires a signal strength meter (like that
on the L-Tronics DF units-if the DF portion of the unit is
inoperative you can still use this type of search as
long as RECeive is OK.
Note your signal strength when beginning the search.
Fly a straight line until the signal gets lower, then
increases to your original level.
Turn 180º and return to the lowest level of signal, then
turn 90º left or right.
You should now be headed directly towards or away
from the transmitter.
If the signal increases in strength, you are headed
directly for the ELT.
If the signal decreases
inScott
strength,
©2000
E. Lanis turn 180º
153
Metered Search
3
ELT
2
MAXIMUM SIGNAL
THEN DROP
6
4
5
1
FIRST SIGNAL
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
154
Left-Right DF Homing
Most CAP corporate aircraft have L-Tronics
LA-Series Left-Right Homing DF units
 These units operate virtually the same, but
there are two major varieties:

• Single Meter Models
• Dual Meter Models
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
155
L-Tronics DF Types

Single Meter Model
 SENS
REC
243
ALARM
AUX
121.775
VOL
DF
121.6
VHF-DF
121.5
OFF
L-Tronics

Dual Meter Model
DF
ALARM
STRENGTH
 SENS
VOL
243
121.775
AUX
121.6
121.5
VHF
DF©2000 Scott E. Lanis
OFF
L-Tronics
156
Frequency Switch
Selects frequency to be used
 Use 121.5 MHz for actual ELTs/EPIRBs
 243.0 MHz may also be used for all actual electronic
searches
 Use 121.775 MHz for training
 Refer to owners manual for use of the “AUX” position

 SENS
REC
243
121.775
AUX
ALARM
VOL
DF
121.6
121.5
VHF-DF
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
OFF
157
L-Tronics
Mode Switch

Only Single-meter units have this switch
• Dual-meter units use two displays, so both REC and DF operate continuously and
simultaneously

REC is short for RECeive mode
• REC makes the unit’s dial work as a strength meter

DF is short for Direction Find
• DF gives left-right homing to the ELT/EPIRB signal

ALARM is for NON-MISSION flights only
• Use only during normal flying to alert the presence of an ELT or EPIRB
 SENS
REC
243
121.775
AUX
ALARM
VOL
DF
121.6
121.5
VHF-DF
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
OFF
158
L-Tronics
Volume & Sensitivity



Volume controls the audio level to the speaker or headsets
Sensitivity controls the amount of signal that enters into the DF unit
• It is critical that the proper amount of signal enters the DF: halfscale, or the middle, is an optimum starting place
As the signal gets stronger, reduce SENSITIVITY, not volume
• The DF will be unreliable as too much signal is received, so you must cut
out part of it by reducing the sensitivity
• More than three-quarters scale is too much
DF
ALARM
STRENGTH
 SENS
VOL
243
121.775
AUX
121.6
121.5
VHF©2000 Scott E. Lanis
DF
OFF
159
L-Tronics
DF SETTINGS FOR
SINGLE METER MODELS

MISSIONS
•
•
•
•
•

Select 121.5 (or 121.775 for training missions)
Select DF Mode
Turn Sensitivity to Maximum (Full Clockwise)
Turn Volume to About Mid-Scale
DF Needle Will Move Slightly Left and Right
NON-MISSION FLIGHTS
• Select 121.5
• Select Alarm Mode
• Turn Sensitivity To Maximum
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
160
DF SETTINGS FOR
DUAL METER MODELS

MISSIONS
•
•
•
•
•
•

Select 121.5 (or 121.775 for training missions)
Ensure Alarm Toggle Off
Turn Sensitivity to Maximum (Full Clockwise)
Turn Volume to About Mid-Scale
DF Should Stay About Centered
Strength Meter Will Move Up-Scale to Right
NON-MISSION FLIGHTS
• Select 121.5
• Turn Alarm Toggle On
• Turn Sensitivity To Maximum
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
161
PRE-FLIGHT FUNCTIONAL
CHECK
Just as you pre-flight the rest of the aircraft,
you should preflight your DF when going on
an ELT electronic search mission
 These procedures are covered in the Mission
Aircrew Reference Text.

©2000 Scott E. Lanis
162
SIX STEPS


Use these 6 steps for locating ELTs and EPIRBs with
L-Tronics LA- series airborne DF equipment
Use the full procedure every time for the best
results
•
•
•
•
•
•

RECeive
HALF
DF
TURN
CHECK
SHOOT
Each of these steps will be described in detail in
the slides to follow
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
163
Step 1: RECeive
Once you have started to receive the ELT or
EPIRB signal on the proper frequency
 If you have a single-meter unit, turn the
mode selector to RECeive and turn the
volume to a comfortable level
 If you have a dual meter unit, refer to the
STRENGTH window (no need to change
modes)

©2000 Scott E. Lanis
164
RECeive Mode/STRENGTH
Window

In receive mode or in the strength window, the unit measures
signal strength
• Needle to the left means low; to the right means high


Values are relative depending on the sensitivity you have
selected
You may still be able to use the strength meter even if the DF is
not functioning perfectly
• It is possible to locate an ELT using only the Receive Mode
• Utilize Aural Search/Metered Search methods to accomplish
• If the unit isn’t completely operable, try wing shadowing using one of the
aircraft’s communications radios and use the DF unit’s strength meter as a
backup using the aural/metered methods
Step 2: HALF

Now that the unit is in RECeive mode and you
have a good signal, turn the Sensitivity Knob
to HALF SCALE
• This is in the center of the window
 If
you are flying with a dual-meter unit, turn
the Sensitivity Knob so the needle reads HALF
SCALE in the STRENGTH window
 A half-scale strength reading will prevent too
much signal (over sense) from entering the
unit and will provide you with a good starting
point
 It is also the optimum for the DF homing
antennas
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
166
Step 3: DF
For single-meter units, turn the mode selector
knob to DF
 In DF mode, you can think of the needle as
always pointing Direct to the Flipping target.
 For dual-meter models, simply refer to the DF
window (no need to change modes)

©2000 Scott E. Lanis
167
DF Antenna

The aircraft DF unit has a 2 or 3 “element” antenna
• Commonly, we might call this two or three antennas
• It just means there are two or three rods!

This antenna setup is directional
• One element actually receives the signal
• The other elements (rods) reflect the signal away from the
first rod
Antenna Elements
Antenna Reception Pattern

When viewed from the bottom, an antenna
setup like the one pictured on the previous
slide produces a reception pattern like the
one shown here
• This pattern is called “carotid,”
which means
“heart-shaped”

The pattern is the same
even if the antennas are
mounted above the
wing
Element 1
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
2
3
169
Direction Finding
Mode/Window

The DF mode rapidly alternates the receiving
and reflecting antenna elements
• It chooses one element as the receiver and the
other two as the reflectors, then switches to the
other set

This produces a carotid pattern each time
the unit switches
• one is shown in blue, the other in yellow



By comparing the two patterns, the unit
will determine when they are equal
When they’re equal, the needle centers!
When the needle is centered,
the target is either directly ahead or
behind you!
Step 4: TURN
Turn at least one FULL circle, noting where the
DF needle centers
 Under ideal conditions, the needle will center
twice

• When facing directly at the source of the signal
• When facing 180º away from the target

You will solve this problem (called
ambiguity) in the next step
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
171
DF CENTERS
ELT (Possibility 1)
Alternating
Antenna
Patterns
WHEN THE
PATTERNS
ARE EQUAL,
THE DF NEEDLE
CENTERS!
Alternating
Antenna
Patterns
ELT (Possibility 2)
Step 5: CHECK
Use Turn to Tell
 Remembering that in DF mode the needle
always points Direct to the Flipping target
 When you have the needle centered, turn left
or right

• If you turn left and the needle goes left, the ELT is 180º
from your present heading
• If you turn left and the needle turns right, the ELT is dead
ahead
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
173
AMBIGUITY

When Needle Centers
• ELT is Directly
Ahead or Behind



This situation is
called “ambiguity”
To Solve
ambiguity:
Use Turn to Tell
• Make a turn left or right
• The needle always
points
Direct to the Flipping
Target (DF!)
ELT (Possibility 2)
ELT (Possibility 1)
DF NEEDLE



Compare the YELLOW (LEFT)
and the BLUE (RIGHT)
antenna patterns
In this case, the
LEFT pattern is
stronger than
the RIGHT
In DF mode, the
needle would then
point LEFT
• The needle always points
Direct to the Flipping Target!
ELT
ELT (Possibility 1)


Actual ELT position
is unknown to user
Make a small turn
left or right
• As a teaching
reminder, “Use a
TURN to TELL”
SOLVING
AMBIGUITY
ELT (Possibility 2)
ELT (Possibility 1)


Actual ELT position
is unknown to user
Make a small turn
left or right
• As a teaching
reminder, “Use a
TURN to TELL”

Example:
• TURN LEFT
• needle goes left
SOLVING
AMBIGUITY
ELT (Possibility 2)


Actual ELT position
is unknown to user
Make a small turn
left or right
• As a teaching
reminder, “Use a
TURN to TELL”

Example:
• TURN LEFT
• If needle goes left
• ELT is to your left
(behind you)
ELT (Possibility 2)
SOLVING
AMBIGUITY
ELT (Possibility 1)


If you turn Left and the
needle moves Right
The ELT is in
Front of you!
SOLVING
AMBIGUITY
ELT (Possibility 2)
ELT (Possibility 1)



If you turn Left and the
needle moves Right
The ELT is in
Front of you!
Example:
• Turn left
• Needle goes
right
SOLVING
AMBIGUITY
ELT (Possibility 2)
ELT (Possibility 1)

Solution:
• If you turn Left
and the needle
moves Right
• The ELT is in
Front of you!
SOLVING
AMBIGUITY
N
Use your DG to determine a
bearing to the target & follow it
 You may need to fly through a
zone of signal dropout
 Be watchful for signs of signal passage
E
W
Step 6: SHOOT

S
• If you get signal passage, consider using the “pinpointing the
target” techniques listed in this presentation
 Frequently
repeat the full six steps to ensure you are
heading in the right direction and that you didn’t
inadvertently over fly the ELT
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
182
How A DF Unit Works: Summary

Two Main Modes of Operation
• RECeive
• DF
 RECeive Mode is a Strength
• Left is low, right is high

Meter
DF Mode Centers on Signal
• Always points to the signal
• Use a Turn to Tell when solving ambiguity

Aircraft and ground units work the same way
QUESTIONS?
Reflections
Reflections of an ELT signal work just like a
flashlight off of a mirror
 Any flat, hard, or wet object can cause
signal reflections

•
•
•
•

Mountains, especially cliff faces
Hangars and other metal structures
Wet grass or snow
Large bodies of water or ice
Power lines can also have a large effect on a
low-powered signal such as an ELT
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
185
Beating Reflections

Check your sensitivity at half-scale or lower
• But ensure that its high enough to receive adequate signal



Reflections will generally be weaker than the most direct path to
the target
Following reflections will generally take your closer to the target
If sensitivity is set to minimum, try DFing on a different frequency
• For example, if you are trying to locate an actual ELT on 121.5 MHz, try
locating it on 121.6 or 121.775 MHz when you get close

When all else fails, fly somewhere else to get a good DF bearingor try that at the first sign of problems!
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
186
Carrier-Only Signals
• You don’t always need to hear the ELT or EPIRB to find it
– A carrier-only signal may be broadcasting with no audible sweep
• This is especially true with low or old batteries, damaged ELTs, or
spurious transmissions
• You can identify a carrier-only signal by DEFLECTION
• Good needle deflection generally indicates a signal that is strong
enough to DF
• Compare your deflection to another frequency
– If you are using 121.5 MHz, try it on 121.775 MHz
• If deflection is the same in both frequencies, you DON’T have a
signal, just random noise
• If deflection is different, keep at it! You have the signal.
• If a signal is only received on 243 MHz, it may be a malfunctioning
antenna (e.g., an FAA tower). If you DF to the location (particularly
on or near an airport) and you keep ending up at an antenna,
investigate. Find out who owns the antenna and its purpose. Inform
the IC and let the controlling
agency
the problem.
©2000
Scott E. troubleshoot
Lanis
187
Vertical Reflections &
Signal Dropout





The transmission pattern (similar to the reception
pattern of the DF antennas, only for transmission) of an
ELT is not a perfect circle or sphere
It has lobes, or, stronger and weaker points
This is accentuated when the ELT is transmitting from a
location above the surrounding ground
When you get a good DF heading and the signal
fades or drops out completely you may just be outside
of one of the signal lobes
When you reacquire the signal, it should be stronger
than when you lost it
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
188
Signal Dropout


If you encounter a signal dropout, continue to fly on your last good
DF heading
You should reacquire the signal in a few minutes
• Actual time will depend upon your distance to the target

If you are unable to reacquire, return to where you last heard the
signal and re-DF
NO SIGNAL
SIGNAL
HEARD
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
189
Signal Strength


The rate of change in signal strength increases as you get closer to
the transmitter, and RECeive mode or the STRENGTH window
measures signal strength
This is due to Maxwell’s inverse square law:
• When you double the distance from an object, the energy it you receive from
it is 1/4 of what you originally received, or the inverse square: 1/(22) = 1/4
– After Scottish Physicist James Clerk Maxwell, 1831-1879

You will therefore need to turn down the sensitivity to keep the unit at
half scale in the RECeive mode or STRENGTH window much more
often as you get close to the source of the signal
• This should let you know that you’re getting close
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
190
Signal Strength Rate of Change
 SENS
3
2
1
VOL
4
5
6
7
1
2
4
8
16
32
64
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
191
Cone of Confusion
Antennas receive best when the
pole is perpendicular to the signal
 When you approach the directly
overhead position on an ELT, your
DF will become unreliable

Cone of
Confusion
• It may swing left and right
• It may center regardless of your heading

You should practice to see what this
“station passage” reading looks like
• It is similar to crossing a VOR
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
192
Reception in the “Cone of
Silence”


You may also get a significant drop in ELT signal since the antennas
don’t receive well directly off of their tips
Although called a cone of silence, you will probably only see & hear a
large decrease in signal instead of complete silence
POOR
antenna
GOOD
signal
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
193
Pinpointing the ELT



If you get a station passage indication, make an approximate
180 degree turn and DF back to the target
Repeat this process using different approach angles
each time, remembering that
your path may be curved due
to wind (like uncorrected
NDB holding)
The point where station
passage is received
several times
should be the
location of
the target
2
3
1
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
194
Pinpointing the ELT

After you think you have the target located
• make a low pass over the suspected location and
visually scan
• if signal strength decreases significantly or drops out,
climb back and try again
• this is not the target: sometimes false targets will appear
due to reflections or other interference

If you hear the ELT at low altitude, you
probably have the right place
• a low pass down a runway might be a good idea if you
suspect a particular airport
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
195
QUESTIONS?
After Locating The ELT
After location, coordinate with ground teams
to bring them on-scene
 Use radio communication and relay GPS
coordinates
 Pick up the ground team at a predetermined
location and lead them to the target
 Alternately, coordinate a pick up point on
the radio
 Practice your air-to-ground coordination
skills often

• try it both with and without radio communication

©2000 Scott
E. Lanisunique ES skill!
Air-to-ground is CAP’s
best
197
DF upon Landing
Many times the ELT is located at an airfield where
it is easier for you to land and locate the ELT than
it is to get a ground team to the scene
 You can use a hand-held radio or hand-held DF
unit
 The most commonly used in CAP is the Little L-Per
 You did remember to put one of these (with
charged batteries) in the aircraft before you left,
didn’t you?

Little L-Per

Six Steps
•
•
•
•
•
•
Receive
Half
DF
Center
Turn
Shoot
OK, which of these planes is it in?
You land at an airport with multiple hangars and
each hangar is full of aircraft
 This can make it difficult to find the ELT
 Two methods can help:

• Signal-offset
• Using a hand-held radio without its antenna

If the suspect aircraft has an external DF antenna
and you can’t get inside to turn the ELT off, try
placing an aluminum foil ‘sleeve’ over the
antenna to see if the signal strength decreases
significantly
OK, which of these planes is it in?

Signal-offset: reflected signals are generally
weaker so by tuning your radio further away from
the primary frequency you can isolate the signal:
• Assume ELT transmitting on 121.5; set to 121.55
• As you home in set in 121.6 (you may even work up to 121.7)
• As you get further away from 121.5 the area where the signal
will break through the squelch becomes smaller and smaller
(you can even turn up the squelch to get further isolation)
OK, which of these planes is it in?

Using a hand-held radio without its antenna:
• Once you’ve narrowed the suspects down to one or two
aircraft (usually side-by-side), remove the radio’s antenna
and hold it next to one of the ELT antennas
• Turn the volume down until you just hear the signal
• Don’t key the radio’s transmitter with the antenna removed!
• Move to the other aircraft’s ELT antenna
• If the signal is stronger you probably have it; if weaker, its
probably the other aircraft
• May also put an aluminum foil ‘sleeve’ over the antenna
• Can also combine this with the signal-offset method
OK, where is the thing?

ELTs are usually located in or near the rear of the
aircraft. Also look for remote switches.
• Single-engine Cessna: right side of the upper baggage area
immediately aft of the baggage door
• Multi-engine Cessna: left side of the fuselage just forward of
the horizontal stabilizer. Accessed through a small push-plate
on the side of the fuselage.
• Single- and multi-engine Piper: in the aft fuselage. Accessed
through a small access plate on the right side of the fuselage.
• Single- and multi-engine Bonanza: in the aft fuselage.
Accessed through a small access plate on the right side of the
fuselage.
• Large piston twins (e.g., King Air) and small jets: if installed its
probably in the rear section. No visible antenna. May have a
small round push-plate that lets you manipulate the ELT switch.
Silencing the ELT
The preferred method is to have the owner (or
someone designated by the owner) turn it off
and disconnect the battery
 Second best is to just turn it off

• The owner may take the switch to ‘Off’ and then back to
‘Armed’
• If this is done, stick around and monitor 121.5 to ensure it
doesn’t go off again

If you can’t find the owner, you may have to
build a foil ‘tent’ (refer to CAPP-2)
Silencing the ELT





Foil Tent
1’ x 5’
Encloses antenna
Flaps at least 18”
beyond antenna
on fuselage
Securely taped
(masking tape
preferred)
Silencing the ELT


Ensure that the owner is notified that the ELT was disabled
If you can’t get a phone number, you can place a note on
the aircraft (not the window)
Legal Issues
Per CAPR 60-1 Chapter 1, CAP members will not
enter private property and should not do
anything that could cause harm or damage to
the distress beacon or aircraft/boat
 Entry to the ELT should be made by the owner or
operator or law enforcement
 A transmitting ELT is under the legal authority of
the FCC, and federal law requires that it be
deactivated ASAP (a crashed aircraft is under
the authority of the NTSB)

Legal Issues
CAP members do not have the authority to
trespass onto private property, either to gain
access to the aircraft or to enter the aircraft to
gain access to the ELT
 Besides the owner/operator, some owners give
FBO personnel permission to enter their aircraft

Legal Issues
While entry upon private property may be
justified if such an act is for the purpose of saving
life, every effort should be made to obtain the
controlling agency's and/or the property owner's
consent
 If you need entry onto private property in order
to search for an ELT, law enforcement authorities
such as local police, the county sheriff's office or
game wardens may be contacted for assistance.

Legal Issues
Normally, local law enforcement officials are
happy to assist you; if they are not familiar with
CAP and your responsibilities, a simple
explanation often suffices
 If this doesn't work, try calling AFRCC and have
them explain the situation

Legal Issues
The most important aspect is the manner in
which you approach the matter
 The local civil authorities are in charge, if they tell
you go home, then phone the IC and/or AFRCC
and close the mission

QUESTIONS?
Good Hunting!
©2000 Scott E. Lanis
212
Visual Search Patterns
and Procedures
(Chapter 11)
Objectives

Plan and describe how to fly the following
search patterns:
•
•
•
•

Route (track crawl) {O; 11.2}
Parallel track (sweep) {O; 11.3}
Creeping line {O; 11.4}
Point-based (expanding square and sector) {O; 11.5 & 11.6}
Discuss how to plan and fly a Contour search
pattern {O; 11.7}
The “Stupid Check”
“Hey! Wait a minute. This is stupid.”
 Do my headings, waypoints, lat/long
coordinates, and distances look sensible
 Perform:

• After planning
• When you start your pattern
• Periodically thereafter
Examples
The following examples and worksheets are
covered to aid in pre-planning a search pattern
 Designed for non-moving map GPS, but include
all the information you need to set up the GX55
 Advantages of pre-planning:

• Sets the details of the sortie in your mind
• Makes entering data (correctly) into your GPS easier
• Allows pilot and observer to concentrate on their primary task
by minimizing navaid setup time and reducing confusion
Latitude, Longitude and Distance
(and the GPS)

One minute latitude = 1.0018 nm
• Fly one minute north or south, cover one nautical mile
1-nm leg width)
(a
 One
minute longitude = anywhere from 0.6572 to
0.9152 nm in the continental U.S.
• Means you’ll have to fly anywhere from 1.1 – 1.4 minutes of
longitude (east or west) to cover one nautical mile
• Not hard to do, but for training we will use one minute = one
mile, even though we’ll be flying less than 1-nm leg widths
• To get the relationship in your area, go to
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~cvm/latlongdist.php
Route search pattern
Track of missing aircraft
Track of search aircraft
1/2 S
1/2 S
Route search example

Assume we’re searching for an aircraft along
Highway 46, between Columbus and
Greensburg:
• Draw the route on the worksheet
• Include significant turns in the highway and other identifiers
such as towns, airports and major intersections
• Search two miles either side of the highway
Route search
worksheet
example
Parallel Track search pattern
1/2 S
S
S
Grid search example

Assume we’re searching STL #104-D for a missing
aircraft:
• Quarter-grid, 7.5' x 7.5'
• Enter the northeast corner
• One nm track spacing
• North/South legs
• No aircraft assigned to adjacent grids
Grid search
worksheet
example

GX55 Data
Type Grid & Sectional: US , STL
 Pattern: Parallel Line
 Grid: 104D2
 Spacing: 1 nm
 Direction of Travel: N/S

Creeping Line search pattern
Direction of Search
s
s
s
s
s
Creeping Line search example

Assume we’re searching for an aircraft along
Highway 31:
• Draw the route on the worksheet
• Start at the intersection of Hwy 31/9 (southeast of Columbus)
• Stop at the intersection of Hwy 31/50 (east of Seymour)
• Search three miles either side of Hwy 31
• 1-nm track spacing
Creeping
Line search
worksheet
example
Creeping Line search example
(CDI method)

Assume we’re searching for an aircraft along the
extended runway centerline of BMG runway 06:
• Draw the route on the worksheet
• Search 10 nm beyond the end of runway 06 (southwest)
• Search three miles either side of the extended centerline
• 1-nm track spacing
Creeping
Line search
worksheet
example
(CDI)

GX55 Data
Type Grid & Sectional: US , STL
 Pattern: Creeping Line
 Starting Waypoint: BMG
 Spacing: 1 nm
 Direction of Travel: 060º
 Leg Length: 3 nm
 Start Side: Right

Expanding Square search
pattern (second pass rotated 45°)
4S
2S
5S 3S
S 2S 4S
3S
5S
Expanding Square search example

Assume we’re searching for a missing ultra-light:
• Draw the route on the worksheet
• Center is a 483 AGL tower approximately 8 nm west of
Seymour
• Use cardinal headings, starting to the north
Expanding
Square search
worksheet
example

GX55 Data
Type Grid & Sectional: US , STL
 Pattern: Expanding Square
 Starting Waypoint: N 38º 59´ W 86º

10´
Spacing: 1 nm
 Direction of Travel: 000º

Sector search pattern
S max
The pattern and headings
are planned in advance
Sector search is easier to fly
than expanding square
This pattern is used when an
electronic search has led the
crew to a general area to find
the exact location visually
The pattern provides concentrated
coverage near the center of the area
S mean
Contour search pattern
This is a difficult and
dangerous pattern to fly.
Requires special training
such as the Mountain
Flying course.
QUESTIONS?
Step Through a
Typical Mission
(Chapter 13)
Objectives

Discuss the items you should check before
leaving on a mission: {P; 13.1}
• Personal and aircraft items
• CAPF 71
• State the flight time and crew duty limitations (per the current
CAPR 60-1)
• State the three unique entries made by a CAP pilot on a FAA
Flight Plan and where they go on the flight plan
• “IMSAFE” and flight release
• Preflight & loading
• Departure

Discuss the approach and your actions upon
arrival at mission base, including the general
briefing. {P; 13.2 & 13.4}
Objectives




Discuss the six steps of ORM and the four principles
involved. {P; 13.3}
Discuss the aircrew briefing. {P; 13.5}
Describe the information contained in and how to fill out
the front of the CAPF 104. {P; 13.6}
Discuss the items checked and actions taken before
leaving on a sortie: {P; 13.7}
• Release and preparation
• Preflight and Departure
• State when the ‘sterile cockpit’ rules starts and ends

Discuss duties during the sortie, including: {P; 13.8}
• Preparations prior to entering the search area
• Required radio reports
• State when the ‘sterile cockpit’ rules starts and ends
Objectives
Discuss your actions upon arrival back at mission
base. {P; 13.9}
 Describe the information contained in and how
to fill out the back of the CAPF 104. {P; 13.10}
 Discuss the aircrew debriefing. {P; 13.11}
 Discuss your actions upon arrival back home,
including: {P; 13.12}

• What to do with the aircraft
• What to do if you observe signs of post-traumatic stress
• When the mission is officially over for you and your crew
What’s the Rush?
Why do we go to so much trouble to train
mission aircrew members and encourage
members to spend the time it takes to stay
proficient?
 Time is such a critical factor in missing person
or aircraft crash searches
 Treat every minute after you been alerted as
critical to the survival chances of the victims

Survival Rates

Of the 29% who survive a crash, 60% will be
injured:
• 81% will die if not located within 24 hours
• 94% will die if not located within 48 hours

Of those 40% uninjured in the crash:
• 50% will die if not located within 72 hours
• Survival chances diminish rapidly after 72 hours
Response Times

Average time from the aircraft being
reported missing to AFRCC notification:
• 15.6 hours if no flight plan was filed
• 3.9 hours if a VFR flight plan was filed
• 1.1 hours if an IFR flight plan was filed

Average time from the aircraft being
reported missing (LKP) to CAP locating and
recovering:
• 62.6 hours if no flight plan was filed
• 18.2 hours if a VFR flight plan was filed
• 11.5 hours if an IFR flight plan was filed
What’s the Rush?

What do these statistics tell us?
• We must take each mission seriously!
• Strive to do everything better, smarter and faster!
 Training,
practice and pre-planning help us
accomplish these goals
 Also tells us, as pilots, to always file a flight
plan
Leaving Home Base
NOTE: Mission Pilots may skip the portions that
were covered in Chapter 12, Phases of Flight
Proper uniforms per CAPM 39-1
 Required credentials
 Current charts for the entire trip (gridded, if
you have them)
 Personal supplies and money
 Equipment such as cell phone and flashlights
(including spare batteries)
 Charts and maps

Leaving Home Base
Check the Weight and balance, CO monitor
& Fire Extinguisher status, fuel reserve and
management plan, Discrepancy Log
 Tie-downs, chocks, Pitot cover and engine
plugs
 Equipment such as fuel tester, survival kit,
binoculars, sick sacks, and cleaning supplies

Leaving Home Base


Obtain briefing and file FAA Flight Plan
Complete “Inbound” 104 and get released by FRO
Leaving Home Base
“IMSAFE”
 Illness
 Medication
 Stress
 Alcohol
 Fatigue
 Emotion
FRO
Checklist
(60-1)
Pre-flight begins even before
you even get to the aircraft
Preflight


Check the aircraft: Pre-flight (e.g., CAPF 71, CAP Aircraft
Inspection Checklist)
Check the date and starting Tach & Hobbs times to ensure
you won't exceed:
• mid-cycle oil change (40-60 hours, not to exceed four months)
• 100-hour/Annual
• 24-month Transponder inspection, Pitot-Static system inspection,
Altimeter calibration, & ELT inspection/Battery replacement date
• 30-day VOR check for IFR flight


Check the AD compliance list
Fill in the CAP flight log
Preflight





Check the Discrepancy Log; ensure no discrepancy makes
the aircraft unsafe for flight or reduces your ability to
accomplish the mission
Verify any outstanding discrepancies during your aircraft
preflight. If new discrepancies are discovered, log them
and ensure the aircraft is still airworthy and mission ready
During loading, ensure that all supplies and equipment
correspond to what you used in your Weight & Balance
Windshield and windows are clean, and that the chocks, tiedowns, and Pitot tube covers/engine plugs are stowed
Check and test special equipment
Preflight
Check parking area for obstacles, arrange for
marshaller or wing-walker
 The mission pilot will perform the passenger
briefing and review the emergency egress
procedure. The pilot should also brief the crew on
the fuel management plan and assumptions, and
assign responsibility for inquiring about fuel status
once an hour.
 The pilot will review the taxi plan and taxiway
diagram, and assign crew responsibilities for taxi
 Once everyone is settled in, organize the cockpit
and review the "Engine Fire on Start" procedure

Departure
Always use the checklists; use the
challenge/response method
 Seat belts and shoulder harness (always <1000
AGL)
 Collision avoidance! An increasing number of taxi
mishaps are the number one trend in CAP.
Investigations reveal that pilots are: straying from
designated taxi routes, not allowing adequate
clearance, not considering the tail and wings
during turns, taxiing too fast for conditions, taxiing
with obscured visibility, distracted by cockpit
duties, and not using other crewmembers to
ensure clearance.

Departure

CAPR 60-1 taxi rules:
• Taxi no faster than a slow walk when within 10 feet of obstacles
• Maintain at least 50' behind light single-engine aircraft, 100' behind
small multi-engine and jet aircraft, and 500' behind heavies and taxiing
helicopters


Go over the crew assignments for takeoff and departure and
make sure each crewmember knows in which direction they
should be looking during each.
Remind the crew that midair collisions are most likely to
occur in daylight VFR conditions within five miles of an
airport at or below 3,000’ AGL! This means that most midair
collisions occur in or near the traffic pattern. Since the pilot
has only one set of eyes, this (and aircraft design) leaves
several 'blind spots' that the observer and scanner must
cover -- particularly between your 4 and 8 o'clock positions.
Departure




Be sure and include the DF unit's Alarm light self-test in your
scan during startup. The light should blink for several
seconds; if it doesn't your unit may be inoperative.
Ensure that the DF, Audio Panel and FM radio are set up
properly. If possible, perform an FM radio check. Select
your initial VOR radial(s) and GPS setting (e.g., destination or
flight plan).
Obtain ATIS and Clearance (read back all clearances and
hold-short instructions). Then verify the crosswind limitation.
Set up the navigational instruments (e.g., VOR radials and
GPS destination, entry points and waypoints)
Once you begin taxiing, check your brakes
Departure






Sterile cockpit rules are now in effect
Keep the checklist close at hand, open to Emergency
Procedures
Check for landing aircraft before taking the active
At takeoff, start the Observer Log with the time and Hobbs for
"Wheels Up“
The FAA's "operation lights on" encourages pilots to keep
aircraft lights on when operating within 10 miles of an airport,
or wherever flocks of birds may be expected
While departing the airport environs practice collision
avoidance and maintain the sterile cockpit until well clear of
traffic and obstacles. The pilot should use shallow S-turns
and lift a wing before turns to check for traffic. The crew
must keep each other appraised of conflicting aircraft and
obstacles
Arrival at Mission Base
Obtain ATIS (or AWOS) as soon as possible. May
be able to contact mission base on FM radio.
 Review taxi plan/airport taxi diagram and make
crew assignments for approach, landing and taxi
 Make sure each crewmember knows in which
direction they should be looking during each.
Remind the crew that midair collisions are most
likely to occur in daylight VFR conditions within
five miles of an airport at or below 3,000’ AGL! This
means that most midair collisions occur in the
traffic pattern, with over half occurring on final
approach
 Sterile cockpit rules are now in effect

Return to Base – Basic Pattern
Arrival at Mission Base
 Practice
collision avoidance by turning the
aircraft exterior lights on when within 10
miles of the airport. The pilot should use
shallow S-turns and lift a wing before turns
to check for traffic.
Read back all
clearances and hold-short instructions
 Defer after-landing checks until clear
 Log and report "Wheels Down"
 Watch for Marshallers and follow their
directions, signal Ignition Switch OFF (hold
keys out the window) so they can chock
Arrival at Mission Base
(with style)
Arrival at Mission Base

Secure the aircraft:
• Avionics/Control lock, Master Switch OFF
• Tie-downs, chocks, Pitot tube cover and engine plugs
• Close windows, Fuel Selector Switch in 'Right' or 'Left,' and Parking Brake
OFF; remove personal items and special equipment; lock the doors and
baggage compartment.
Oil & fuel, clean windows and leading edges
 Close FAA flight plan, call FRO
 Check aircrew and aircraft into the mission
 Complete “Inbound” 104
 Get sortie assignment
 Determine food and lodging

General Briefing
 Mission
objective and status
 Safety and hazards
 Mission base procedures
 Weather
 Frequencies
 Code words
Operational Risk
Management
 Accomplish
the mission with the least
possible risk.
 More than common sense, more than just
a safety program.
 Educated (informed) risk versus taking a
gamble.
 Part of the CAP culture.
ORM – Six Steps
 Identify
the hazards
 Assess the risks
 Analyze risk control measures
 Make control decisions
 Implement risk controls
 Supervise and review
ORM Principles
 Accept
no unnecessary risks.
 Make risk decisions at the appropriate
level.
 Accept risk when the benefits outweigh
the costs.
 Integrate
ORM into CAP practices,
procedures, and planning at all levels.
ORM and the Aircrew
Acknowledge risks in order to deal with them.
 Each crewmember is responsible to look for risks.
 Don’t ignore risks; if you can’t eliminate or
reduce the risk, tell someone.
 PIC has ultimate authority and responsibility to
deal with risks during the sortie.
 PIC has the responsibility to inform his or her
crew of the risks involved, and to listen to and
address their concerns.

Aircrew Briefing

Sortie Objectives

Weather

Altitudes

Duties
CAPF
104
Front
- Flight Plan
- Briefing form
QUESTIONS?
Preparing to Leave on a Sortie
 Check
in with briefing officer
 Check in with air operations
 Present 104 to flight line supervisor
 Pilot pre-flights aircraft
 Observer checks mission equipment and
supplies
 Review flight time and duty limitations
 Final restroom visit
Preparing to Leave on a Sortie
 Pilot’s
•
•
•
•
•
briefing:
Seat belts and shoulder harness, no smoking
Seat belts & shoulder harness, emergency egress procedure
Fuel management plan and assumptions
Taxi plan/diagram, crew assignments
Startup and Taxi emergency procedures
• When sterile cockpit rules are in effect
 When
more than one flight is accomplished by the
same crew during the day, subsequent briefings
are not required to be so detailed but must, at a
minimum, highlight differences and changes from
the original briefing
Preparing to Leave on a Sortie
 If
this is the first sortie of the day the
observer will perform an FM radio check
with mission base; you may also perform a
DF functional check if this is an ELT search.
Other special equipment should also be
tested before the first sortie.
 Enter sortie settings into the GPS
(destination or flight plan, entry points and
waypoints)
Taxi Mishaps


Becoming a bigger problem each year (#1 trend in CAP)
Pilots are:
• straying from designated taxi routes
• not allowing adequate clearance and not considering the tail and
wings during turns
• taxiing too fast for conditions and taxiing with obscured visibility
• distracted by cockpit duties
• not using other crewmembers to ensure clearance

Strategies:
•
•
•
•
Thorough planning and preparation eliminates distractions
Crew assignments for taxi
Treat taxiing with the seriousness it deserves
Sterile cockpit rules
Taxi and Departure






The sterile cockpit rules begin at this time
Startup, taxi and departure were covered earlier
If there are flight line Marshallers, they will expect you to turn
on your rotating beacon and signal the impending engine
start before starting the engine. You are also expected to
signal (e.g., turn on your pulse light or flash your taxi/landing
light) before beginning to taxi.
Observer begins Observer Log with time and Hobbs, reports
“Wheels Up”
Takeoff, climb and departure were covered earlier
Once clear of the airport/controlled airspace environs the
crew settles into the transit phase
During the Sortie
Depending on circumstances (e.g., the airspace is
still congested or multiple obstacles are present)
the sterile cockpit rules are normally suspended at
this time.
The aircrew maintains situational
awareness at all times during the flight
 Double-check navigational settings that will be used
in the search area, review search area terrain and
obstacles, review methods to reduce crew fatigue
during the search or to combat high altitude effects.
 Update in-flight weather, file PIREPs, periodically
check navigational equipment against each other
to detect abnormalities or failures

During the Sortie
The pilot should stabilize the aircraft at the assigned
search heading, altitude and airspeed at least two
miles before you enter the search area, and turn
sufficient aircraft exterior lights on to maximize
visibility (so others can "see and avoid")
 Observer logs and reports “Entering the Search
Area,” primary duty is now Scanner
 Periodic “Ops Normal” reports, Observer asks about
fuel status and altimeter setting at least hourly
 Scanner and observer logs, sketches

During the Sortie
During the actual search or assessment, the aircrew
must be completely honest with each other
concerning their own condition and other factors
affecting search effectiveness.
If you missed
something, or think you saw something, say so. If
you have a question, ask.
 If target spotted notify mission base immediately;
begin recovery ASAP
 Mission commander monitors for fatigue, ensures
crew drinks enough fluids, schedules breaks

Return to Base
 When
the aircraft completes its mission
and leaves the search area, the observer
notes the time and the Hobbs reading and
reports "Leaving the Search Area“
 Double-check heading and altitude with
what was assigned for transit to the next
search area or return to base.
 Reorganize the cockpit in preparation for
approach and landing.
 Approach,
landing and arrival were
covered earlier
Return to Base
 Check
back in and take a break
 Drawings or markings made on charts or
maps should be transferred onto the CAPF
104 or attached to it
 Make sure everything is clear and legible
 The two most common entries overlooked
when completing the CAP flight plan (front
side of the CAPF 104) are "ATD" (actual
time of departure) and "Actual LDG Time."
CAPF
104
Reverse
Debriefing
Note both Positive and Negative results
 Use the reverse of CAPF 104
 Used to determine how effective the search
was:

•
•
•
•

Weather — shadows, visibility, snow cover
Terrain — open, flat, mountainous, rough
Ground Cover — barren, forest, scrub, sparse, dense
Other information — hazards, changes from plan
Used to calculate the “probability of
detection” that is used for subsequent search
planning
Debriefing
 Complete
the reverse side of the CAPF 104
 Discuss items on the 104
 Assemble attachments
 Report to debriefer
 Be TOTALLY HONEST during the debriefing
Debriefing
 Crew
comments about effectiveness
 Crew remarks of SAR effectiveness
 Times (and Hobbs readings)
 Sketches and attachments
 Be TOTALLY HONEST during the debriefing
End of the Mission
 Turn
in equipment and supplies
 Settle fuel, food and lodging bills
 Plan the trip home
 Fill out “Outbound” CAPF 104
 Check weather and file FAA Flight Plan
 Check out with mission staff, obtain flight
release
The Trip Home
Maintain crew discipline and continue to use
mission procedures and checklists
 SAR personnel can experience post-traumatic
stress, so look for signs (refer to CAPR 60-5)
 Once on the ground, secure the aircraft and
ready it for its next mission
 Close FAA Flight Plan
 Complete the “Outbound” 104
 Ensure ability to complete CAPF 108
 Once everyone is at home, call mission base with
Hobbs from the ‘Outbound’ 104

Local Drills and Exercises
 Easy
 Inexpensive
 Very
efficient
 Very worthwhile
 Fun
QUESTIONS?
Crew Resource
Management
(Chapter 14)
Objectives
 Discuss
failures and error chain. {O; 14.2}
 Discuss situational awareness. {O; 14.3}
 Discuss how to regain SA once lost. {14.4}
 Describe barriers to communications.
{O; 14.5}
 Define/discuss task saturation. {O; 14.6}
 Discuss assignments and coordination of
duties. {O; 14.8}
Why CRM?

Properly trained aircrew members can
collectively perform complex tasks better
and make more accurate decisions than the
single best performer on the team

An untrained team's overall performance can
be significantly worse than the performance
of its weakest single member

We will cover behavior and attitudes of
teamwork and communication among team
members
Why CRM?
CAP
 Aircraft accidents
 Per 100,000 hours
 A/C flight incidents
 A/C ground incidents
 Fatalities

1996
9
7.79
28
7
7
1997
5
4.16
27
8
2
1998
6
4.76
19
3
3
1999
3
2.34
12
6
2
2000
1
0.94
16
8
0
Why CRM?
MISHAP
 Taxi
 Ground
 Landing
 Other

1998
9
4
8
4
1999
4
6
8
3
2000
9
3
10
2
Failures
Parts
and equipment.
• Mechanical failures
People.
• Human failures
The Error Chain
A
series of event links that, when
considered together, cause a
mishap
Should any one of the links be
“broken,” then the mishap
probably will not occur
It is up to each crewmember to
recognize a link and break the
error chain
Situational Awareness (SA)
Know
what is going on around
you at all times
Requires:
• Good mental health
• Good physical health
• Attentiveness
• Inquisitiveness
Loss of SA
 Strength of an Idea
Hidden agenda
 Complacency
 Accommodation
 Sudden Loss of Judgement

Symptoms of Loss of SA
Fixation
 Ambiguity
 Complacency
 Euphoria
 Confusion
 Distraction
 Overload

Hazardous Attitudes
Anti-authority
Impulsiveness
 Invulnerability
 Macho
 Resignation
 Get There It-us

Regaining SA
Reduce workload: Suspend the mission.
 Reduce threats:

• Get away from the ground and other obstacles
(e.g., climb to a safe altitude).
• Establish a stable flight profile where you can
safely analyze the situation.

Remember: “Aviate, Navigate, Communicate”
How do we get it back?
Trust your gut feelings
 “Time Out,” “Abort,” or “This is Stupid.”

• Pilot establishes aircraft in a safe and stable
configuration, and then discuss the problem

Sterile Cockpit
• Limit talk to the minimum necessary for safety.
• Taxi, takeoff, departure, low-level flying,
approach, landing
QUESTIONS?
Barriers to Communication

Hearing
• The biological function of receiving sounds, converting them to
electrical impulses, and having the brain interpret them

Listening
• Correctly identifying what the sender has sent in their message
Barriers to Communication

Distracters
• Physical/Mental: Noise, static, simultaneous
transmissions; fatigue and stress
• Wording: Incomplete or ambiguous message,
too complex or uses unfamiliar terminology
• Personal: Boring, lack of rapport or lack of
credibility
Task Saturation
Too much information at one time
 Too many tasks to accomplish in a
given time

Usually occurs when an individual is
confronted with a new or unexpected
situation and loses SA

Task Saturation
Keep your workload to an acceptable
level
 If you feel overwhelmed, tell the others
before becoming saturated and losing
you situational awareness
 Watch your team members for signs of
saturation

Identification of Resources

External and internal
Identify your resources, know where
to find them, and how to use them to
accomplish the mission

Assignment of Duties
CAPR 60-3
 Flight-related -- aircraft commander
 Mission-related -- mission commander

Crew Coordination
Understand and execute your
assignments
 Communicate
 Question

Summary
Pay close attention to all briefings
 Understand the “big picture”
 Watch for task overload in yourself and other
crewmembers
 67% of air transport accidents occur during
17% of the flight time - taxi, takeoff,
departure, approach and landing. Keep
casual conversation and distractions to a
minimum during these phases of flight.
 Begin critical communications with
instructions, then explain

Summary







Successful missions hinge on each and every
crewmember
Learn how to use the procedures and tools available
to you, and use them correctly
Never stop learning
Don’t be afraid to ask questions
Never criticize someone for asking questions
Anyone can call “Time Out,” “Abort,” or “This is
Stupid”
Remember that the Mission Pilot must make the final
decision based on the crew’s input.
Questions?
Review and Test