Training Delivery:
Tradition Instructional Approaches
and Emerging Technologies
Dr. Steve
Training & Development
INP6325
Instructional Techniques
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What instructional technique works best?
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No “one size fits all” solutions, only generalities
Ex: don’t train motor skills using lecture format
Why?
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Lack of generalizability – most empirical research tests a particular
technique for a particular skill
Criteria used – evaluations tend to focus on learning, not transfer
Choosing Instructional
Techniques
What do you know about the potential trainees?
1.
What training do they currently use?
2.
What has/hasn’t worked in the past?
3.
What instructional methods are preferred?
Performance Support
Continuum of possible performance support mechanisms
for learning how to use software
Near to Task
Far From Task
User Reference
Classroom Online
Training Tutorial Guides Manuals
Help
Line
Online
Help
Product
Affordances
Guidelines for Instructional
Development*
 Training Validity: Instructional events that comprise the training
method should be consistent with the cognitive, physical, or psychomotor
processes that lead to mastery
 Active Learning: Learner should be induced to produce the capability
 e.g. practice behaviors, recall info from LTM, apply principles in doing
task
 Feedback Delivery: All available sources of relevant feedback should be
used, & should be accurate, credible, timely, informative & constructive
 Self-efficacy: Instructional processes should enhance trainee selfefficacy and expectations that the training will be successful and lead to
valued outcomes
 Trainee Aptitude: Training methods should be adapted to differences in
trainee aptitudes and prior knowledge
*Adapted from research by Campbell
More guidelines in Swezey and Llaneras (p.546-7)
Training Delivery
On-the-Job Training (OJT)
 Most common form of training
 Typically unstructured
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Often used as the control group in training evaluations
If experimental training not significantly better, OJT is the default
Caution: OJT may actually prevent optimal performance and could
cost organization in other ways (job satisfaction, turnover,
downtime, etc.)
Training Delivery
On-the-Job Training (OJT)
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Practice with actual equipment, in actual setting, under operational
conditions
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Ex: Food servers, cashiers, retail sales, professors
Advantages
High physical fidelity
High psychological fidelity
High transfer
Easy to conduct
Low cost
Disadvantages
 Can learn bad habits/incorrect
procedures
 Difficult to assess effectiveness
 May be conducted by “trainers”
with little knowledge of training
 May not be connected to needs
assessment
Training Delivery
Embedded Training – controlled exercises called up and
worked on by trainees operating actual equipment (in
training mode)
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Provides employees opportunities to practice skills in a variety of
common situations to build automaticity
Allows employees to practice skills relevant to situations that might
occur infrequently on the job (meltdown at nuclear power plant).
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Sometimes referred to as “stimulation” because rather than simulate
the equipment it injects signals (stimuli) into the actual equipment
Ex: Paper production monitor (in training mode) indicates jamb,
trainee must react quickly
Training Delivery
Embedded Training
Advantages
 Uses actual equipment – high
transfer
 Safely practice dangerous/unusual
events
 Trainer can structure/control
training
Disadvantages
 Can’t use equipment when being
used for training
 Difficult, costly, or impossible to
implement in many jobs
Training Delivery
Apprenticeship Training – Classroom (or
textbook) plus OJT shadowing
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Common among skilled trades (plumbers, electricians,
carpenters, sorcerers, jedi warriors
Apprentice shadows an experienced worker for a given
time period
Upon completion, apprentice may be given a test
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1937 national Apprenticeship Act created by the Federal bureau of
Apprenticeship and Training (DOL) to ensure apprenticeships were safe
and fair.
Training Delivery
Apprenticeship Training
Advantages
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Low cost
High transfer
Can be used to socialize workers
Disadvantages
 Does not consider different
learning speeds
 Trainer may share bad work
habits
Training Delivery
Lecture – Classroom style delivery of training
Advantages
 Reach a large group
 Low cost
 Good for presenting declarative
knowledge (facts)
Disadvantages
 Lack opportunity for feedback
 Can’t focus on individual
differences/needs of learners
 Training speed too fast for some,
too slow for others
 One-way communication
 Inappropriate for most skills
Training Media
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Click for bad
example of Audio
Air Force Training
Guide
Audio-Visual (AV) Material – videos, films, slide presentations, used
to present info multiple times
Advantages
Can be captivating
Can combine with lecture
Training is consistent
Inexpensive to deliver
Can be dynamic
Disadvantages
 Not interactive
 No practice/feedback
 Difficult to update in some
modalities (e.g., video)
 High development cost
Training Media
Programmed Instruction – based on work of behaviorists
(e.g., Skinner)
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Ex: Skinner’s teaching machine provides reinforcement for each
correct response – gradually eliminates errors
Systematically displays information at learner’s own pace
Learner is tested at end of each unit
Information presented linearly or hierarchically
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Linear – finish one section go to next in sequence
Hierarchical or Branching – correct responses lead down one branch,
incorrect responses lead down different branch
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More advanced learner could move thru larger chunks of info
Training Media
Programmed Instruction
Advantages
 Significantly reduces training time
 Provides instant feedback
 Adaptable to many media types
(books, software) for portability
 Uses motivational principles
 Self-paced for different learning
rates
Disadvantages
 Extensive time and cost of
development
 Focus on factual info, rote
memory
 Many learners dissatisfied if not
supplemented with human
interaction
Training Media
Example of CAI
Interactive Multi-Media – computer driven training
system using text, graphics, video, auditory
information
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Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) / ComputerBased Training (CBT)
Training Media
Interactive Multi-Media - Computer-Assisted Instruction
(CAI), Interactive Courseware (ICW), Computer Based
Training (CBT)
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Trainee interacts directly with computer
Computer presents instructional material
Computer engages trainee in question and answer
Provides immediate feedback/help identify sources of mistakes
May store trainee progress/performance data
Can adapt to individual differences in trainees
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May adapt instruction based on analysis of trainee answers
May be used as tutorial or “drill & practice” (no material presented)
Tutorial may serve as stand-alone instruction
Training Media
Computer-Assisted Instruction
 Research findings:
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Takes 300 hrs to produce 1 hr of CAI training
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Compare to 30 hrs for every 1 hr of classroom instruction
Limited research database on learning with CAI, research focus
often on technology
Some studies show CAI faster than conventional methods
Effectiveness similar to programmed instruction, but learn in less
time
Possible Hawthorne effect is threat to generalizability
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Traninees enjoy new technology, but novelty wears off
Training Media
Interactive Multi-Media – (CAI, CBT, ICW)
Advantages
 Engaging/motivating
 Trainee performance data can be
stored
 Convenient delivery
 Highly interactive
 Provides testing/feedback
Disadvantages
 Not much research to identify
appropriate vs inappropriate uses
 Expensive! (Resource intensive:
software development time)
 After novelty wears off motivation
may wane
 Requires multiple skills to develop
 Some skills not amenable to
CAI/CBT
Training Media
Simulation – imitation of actual environment
– imitation Advantages
of the real environment
Disadvantages
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Realistic practice
Replay/critique performance
Interactive, engaging, dynamic
Safer than real environment
Event-based (trainer-controlled)
Very costly to develop
 Difficult to develop
 Costly to implement
 Simulator sickness
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Training System Fidelity
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Fidelity – realism of the training device
Physical Fidelity – how realistic training device
appears
Functional Fidelity – how well device trains concepts
Fidelity Issues:
1.
2.
3.
Expense – more realism, greater cost
Necessity – many tasks can be learned as well or better by
simplifying task in training (lowered fidelity)
Negative transfer – if training environment is very close to
real environment, then things that are different may lead to
negative transfer.
Training Media
Virtual Reality – simulated 3-dimensionally-modeled,
interactive, learning environment
Advantages
 Immersive & engaging
 High realism
 May involve multiple senses
 Interactive
 Safe preparation for unsafe
environments
Disadvantages
 Extremely costly to develop
 Difficult to develop & implement
 Limited by current technology
 Cyber sickness
 Negative transfer (research on
distance estimation)
Training Media
Distance Learning – use of audio and data links to
present training to multiple sites simultaneously
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Advantages
Saves travel expense
Reach many at one time
Similar in effectiveness as lecture
Can provide multiple media
Disadvantages
 Lack of face time
 Transmission rates
 Unreliable hardware
 Cannot teach skills easily
 Lack of immediate feedback
Training Media
Ex: Human Factors Course
Web-Based Instruction
http://prometheus.uwf.edu
 Training delivered(mainly text-based) via the
internet or intranet
Advantages
 Available 24 hrs per day
 Accessible to many at remote sites
 Easy to update
 Just-in-time training (available on
demand)
 Self-paced (e.g.,links, exercises,
feedback)
 May promote information sharing
Disadvantages
 Interface design issues (e.g., web
navigation, browser differences)
 Access to computers (with
necessary capability)
 Lack of face time
 Limited research on effectiveness
and appropriateness
Training Media
Intelligent Tutor
Examples
See http://prime.jsc.nasa.gov/math/
Intelligent Tutoring Systems – Computer-based
individualized instruction that diagnoses, then
addresses, learner weaknesses
Advantages
 Customized training for individual
needs
 Interactive
 Knowledge assessment
 Non-linear
 Provides tailored feedback
 Info updated based on review of
past students’ performance
Disadvantages
 Very costly (up to 500 hrs
development time/instruction hour)
 Instructor complacency
 Lack of research on effectiveness
Attributes of Intelligent Tutors
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Generative – the capacity to generate appropriate instructional interactions at
run time, based on learner performance
Mixed-initiative – the capacity to initiate interactions with a learner as well as
to interpret and respond usefully to learner-initiated interactions (natural
dialogue)
Interactive – the provision of appropriately contextualized, domain relevant
and engaging learning activities
Student Modeling – the capability to assess the current state of a learner’s
knowledge and the implied capability to do something instructionally useful
based on the assessment
Expert Modeling – the capability to model expert performance and the
implied capability to do something useful based on the assessment
Instructional Modeling – the capability to make pedagogical inferences and
decisions based on the changing state of the student model, based on the
prescriptions of an expert model, or both
Self-improving – the capability to monitor, evaluate, and improve its own
teaching performance as a function of experience
Training Media and Strategy
Guidelines*
Link to decision aid for
selecting training media
 Simulation: effective for teaching many tasks and skills e.g., perceptual
motor skills, conceptual tasks, and team functions
 Computer-based instruction: provide capability to review and branch
and include skill diagnosis and remediation
 Sound: provides helpful cues in instructional presentations
 these cues can be satisfied with relatively low fidelity but extremely
high timely executions
 Induce Motivation: Instruction should provide feedback control of both
stimulus and reinforcement variables
 Reduce Cognitive Load: training features should limit the number of
stimuli (and extraneous stimuli) presented at any one time to avoid
requiring inordinate attention from students
*Guidelines are a subset adapted from Salvendy’s Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics
Guidelines for Enhancing
Transfer
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Generalizability: Provide practice in a variety of stimulus situations so that
a student may generalize their knowledge
Transfer Goal: Use a rote or algorithmic approach if near transfer is the
goal of instruction
Visual Demonstrations: Training which incorporates visual
demonstrations provides positive transfer to real-world situations
Guided Training (training wheels): Gradually decrease the amount of
cues, prompts, and guides such that none (that would not be found on the
job) remain at the end of training
Functional vs. Physical fidelity: functional fidelity appears to be a
stronger influence in transferring knowledge from the learning environment
to the operational setting