Modes of Writing (Genres)
The method of developing an idea is called a
mode! These are the ways to organize material to
suit a particular purpose and audience!
Description
 the expression in vivid language of
what the five senses experience
 A richly rendered description freezes
a subject in time, evoking sights,
smells, sounds, textures, and tastes
in such a way that readers become
one with the writer’s world.
Description
 Description can be a supportive
technique that develops part of an
essay or it can be the dominant
technique used throughout an essay.
Description-objective
 objective description-give detailed
experience without emotional bias.
 factual, scientific
Description-subjective
 subjective-convey a highly personal
view of the subject and seek to elicit
a strong, emotional response from
the audience
Description
 What do you want to describe?
 As you get started on your descriptive essay, it's
important for you to identify exactly what you want to
describe. Often, a descriptive essay will focus on
portraying one of the following:
 a person
 a place
 a memory
 an experience
 an object
 Ultimately, whatever you can perceive or experience
can be the focus of your descriptive writing.
Description
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Why are you writing your descriptive essay?
It's a great creative exercise to sit down and simply describe what
you observe. However, when writing a descriptive essay, you often
have a particular reason for writing your description. Getting in
touch with this reason can help you focus your description and
imbue your language with a particular perspective or emotion.
Example: Imagine that you want to write a descriptive essay about
your grandfather. You've chosen to write about your grandfather's
physical appearance and the way that he interacts with people.
However, rather than providing a general description of these
aspects, you want to convey your admiration for his strength and
kindness. This is your reason for writing the descriptive essay. To
achieve this, you might focus one of your paragraphs on describing
the roughness of his hands, roughness resulting from the labor of
his work throughout his life, but you might also describe how he
would hold your hands so gently with his rough hands when having
a conversation with you or when taking a walk.
Description
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How should you write your description?
If there's one thing you should remember as you write your descriptive
essay, it's the famous saying: show don't tell. But what's the difference
between showing and telling? Consider these two simple examples:
I grew tired after dinner.
As I leaned back and rested my head against the top of the chair, my
eyelids began to feel heavy, and the edges of the empty plate in front of me
blurred with the white tablecloth.
The first sentence tells readers that you grew tired after dinner. The second
sentence shows readers that you grew tired. The most effective descriptive
essays are loaded with such showing because they enable readers to
imagine or experience something for themselves.
As you write your descriptive essay, the best way to create a vivid
experience for your readers is to focus on the five senses.
sight, sound, smell, touch, taste
When you focus your descriptions on the senses, you provide vivid and
specific details that show your readers rather than tell your readers what
you are describing.
Description-You try it!
 Describe a typical summer in
Phoenix. Write about how it feels
physically and emotionally. How do
people act? What do people do?
Describe! Use your five senses!!
SHOW! DON’T TELL!
 Examples in Composition book, page
xxxiv
Narration
 telling a single story or several
related stories.
 The story can be a means to an end,
a way to support a main idea or
thesis
 can provide support or be the
dominant pattern of development.
Narration
 flashback- disrupt the chronology of a
story, go back in time
 flashforward-disrupt the chronology
of the story, go forward in time
Narration
 When writing a narrative essay, one might think of it
as telling a story. These essays are often anecdotal,
experiential, and personal—allowing the student to
express herself in a creative and, quite often, moving
way.
 Here are some guidelines for writing a narrative
essay:
 If written as a story, the essay should include all the
parts of a story.
 This means that you must include an introduction,
plot, characters, setting, climax, and conclusion.
Narration
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When would a narrative essay not be written as a story?
A good example of this is when an instructor asks a student
to write a book report. Obviously, this would not necessarily
follow the pattern of a story and would focus on providing
an informative narrative for the reader.
The essay should have a purpose.
Make a point! Think of this as the thesis of your story. If
there is no point to what you are narrating, why narrate it
at all?
The essay should be written from a clear point of view.
It is quite common for narrative essays to be written from
the standpoint of the author; however, this is not the sole
perspective to be considered. Creativity in narrative essays
often times manifests itself in the form of authorial
perspective.
Narration
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Use clear and concise language throughout the essay.
Much like the descriptive essay, narrative essays are
effective when the language is carefully, particularly, and
artfully chosen. Use specific language to evoke specific
emotions and senses in the reader.
The use of the first person pronoun ‘I’ is welcomed.
Do not abuse this guideline! Though it is welcomed it is not
necessary—nor should it be overused for lack of clearer
diction.
As always, be organized!
Have a clear introduction that sets the tone for the
remainder of the essay. Do not leave the reader guessing
about the purpose of your narrative. Remember, you are in
control of the essay, so guide it where you desire (just
make sure your audience can follow your lead).
Narration-You try it!
 Write a brief paragraph about an
event that changed your life. Tell the
story!
 Examples in Composition book, xxxiii
and xxxiv
Division-Classification
 a way of thinking that allows us to
make sense of a complex world using
systems, categories, or sorting
mechanisms
 Division and Classification are
separate processes, but they
complement each other
Division-Classification
 Division- taking a
single unit or
concept and
breaking it down
into parts, and
then analyzing the
connection among
the parts and
between the parts
and the whole.
Hospital
Pediatric Wing
Cardiac Wing
Maternity Wing
Division
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Division, or analysis, breaks a thing down into parts so that
(typically in a later essay like the argument/position paper),
they can be restructured to form something new, or a
synthesis (can you spot an important six-letter word hiding
within “synthesis”?).
Every time you outline, you do a division, breaking the essay
down into all of its constituent parts (as in classification, failure
to discuss all the parts results in an incomplete division paper,
stocked only with isolated examples).
While classifications are separate, even disparate items
brought together under some common denominator,
divisions are much more explicitly parts of a single
whole
Example: Discussing the key components of a championship
sports team, for instance, would be a division; for that matter,
discussing the components of a successful division essay is
also division.
Division
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Division Structure:
I. Introduction
States thesis (idea or object to be analyzed, and to what
end)
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II. Body
Renders the parts, in separate paragraphs, with examples
and with transitional materials to provide a sense of their
inter-relatedness
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III. Conclusion
Restates the parts of the thesis and (the significance—see
Classification outline, part III) attempts a synthesis or new
understanding of the constituent parts
Division-Classification
 Classificationbrings two or more
related items
together and
categorizes them
according to type
or kind.
lettuce
tomatoes
cucumbers
butter
yogurt
milk
Produce
Dairy
shampoo
conditioner
hair gel
Hair Products
Classification
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Think of classification as a way of categorizing. There are four food
groups. Let’s write about them and (here comes the thesis) what they
contribute to proper nutrition:
What you’re doing when you classify is finding the common
denominators among ideas or objects that are different: What do eggs,
ice cream, and Swiss cheese have in common? Well, monster
cholesterol, for one. But is there classification there? This might be a
topic that works better as cause-effect. Be sure you don’t stray beyond
the point of your assigned rhetorical form unless your professor has
allowed this.
Once the classifications are under way, make sure they don’t overlap.
Don’t omit an important category (all classifications must completely
classify the topic or run the risk of merely being isolated examples).
Make sure that they remain logical.
Example: What’s wrong with this picture? The classifications are of
houses: brick, frame, ranch, and big. Big doesn’t fit. Stucco fits. Adobe
fits. Big belongs to a different basis of classification—size rather than
style.
Classification
 Classification Structure:
 I. Introduction
States thesis
 II. Body
Identifies, in separate paragraphs, the various
categories, with examples
 III. Conclusion
Restates the categories of the thesis and, as a
significance—or answer to the question “so what?”
implied in any composition, stresses the value of
this classification system
Division/Classification-Now you try
it!
 Write one paragraph describing the
hierarchy of the typical high school
clique, identifying the various parts of
the hierarchy. Use your analysis to
support or refute the view that
adolescence is a period of rigid
conformity.
 Examples in Composition book xxxvixxxvii
Process Analysis
 A technique that explains the steps or
sequence involved in doing something
 Self-help books are process analysis
 Cookbooks are process analysis
 Can be used to explain how to solve a
problem
Process Analysis
 The “big idea” behind the paper:
 Practically everyone knows how to do
something very well. In fact, many people
know how to do something so well that
they could actually teach someone else to
do it.
 That is the main purpose behind the
process essay. You are to select something
(a process) that you know how to do very
well and then write a regular essay which
“teaches” the reader how to do that same
thing.
Process Analysis
 Process = a step-by-step movement
from a beginning point to an ending
point.
 Analysis = a careful examination; a
close, detailed look at something
Process Analysis
 How do I select a topic?
a. Something you know how to do very well
b. Maybe something you do as a hobby
c. Something you do as part of your job
d. Perhaps something you learned how to
do in school (but do not use any textbook
to copy from or to get steps from). All ideas
should come from only one source: your
own experience.
Process Analysis
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What kind of topic should I select?
a. First of all, select something that is very practical, down-toearth, and easily visualized by your reader.
b. Accordingly, you should not select a topic that is general, wishywashy, and much too philosophical, such as “how to change your
attitude about life.” Leave that stuff to Dr. Phil and Oprah.
c. To be on the safe side, limit your choices to one of two
categories:
1. Making something (a bird house, a swing, a hamburger,
etc.)
2. Performing a service (waiting tables, washing a car, etc.)
d. Select something easily manageable, not something too big. For
example, how to build an entire house would be much too big and
complicated for this essay; however, how to repave the driveway
would be more manageable.
Process Analysis
 One of the most important purposes of this type of
essay is your ability to look at the process critically
(analyze) and to divide the whole thing into several
concrete steps.
a. Have at least three steps. Obviously, the more
complex the process, the more steps you will have.
b. Each step should be easy to visualize as you
explain it to the reader.
c. Each step must be distinct and different from the
previous step.
d. Write one whole paragraph to explain each step.
When a new paragraph begins, the reader of your
paper should correctly assume that a new step in the
process is also beginning.
Process Analysis
 The process itself should have a
definite beginning point, a middle
point, and an ending point. (See
transitional words and phrases
below.) Your paper should seem to be
always moving forward through the
process to get to the end. Don’t
dawdle around or get bogged down in
the middle of the process.
Process Analysis
 Your introductory paragraph contains no steps;
instead, it simply prepares the reader for the topic of
your paper. You might try including such information
as the following: When did you first try this process?
Why is this process important? Why should the reader
care about this process or be interested in it?
NOTE: By the time the introductory paragraph ends, the
reader should know clearly what the process is and
that you are about to explain to him how to do it.
Don’t make your reader have to “guess” what you’re
going to talk about.
Process Analysis
 By the same token, the concluding
paragraph of your essay also contains
no steps. The purpose of the
concluding paragraph is to “ease out”
of the topic by talking somewhat
generally about the product or the
service and then ending on a nice,
warm, positive note about the topic in
general.
Process Analysis
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Even though you are dealing with several steps in this
essay, do not literally list and label the steps as steps. For
example, do not write anything like this:
Step I: Get two pieces of 2 by 4 plywood.
Step II: Sand them down until both are very smooth.
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Instead, explain each step in a regular, normal paragraph
using regular, normal words and sentences. In short, this
essay is not any different in appearance and style from any
of the other essays you have already written.
You are to write a regular, normal essay that has the
purpose of explaining to the reader in great detail the
various steps involved in how to make a product or how to
perform a service. That’s it!
Process Analysis-Now You Try it!
 In one paragraph, clearly explain a
process you know well.
 Examples in Composition book xxxviii
Definition
the meaning of a word, object,
concept, type of person, place, or
phenomenon
complex
controversial
Beyond synonyms or brief dictionary
definitions
Types of Definitions
Standard
Regulatory
Evolving
Qualifying
Cultural
Personal
Definition-Standard
Universal meaning and rarely subject
to change
 mammal
 virus
 tornado
Definition-Regulatory
Officially designated terms that are
subject to change
Companies, organizations, courts can
change/interpret/define meanings
 full-time student
 work place injury
 experimental procedure
Definition-Evolving
Change over time due to cultural
values, community standards,
government policies, or scientific
research.
 Child abuse
 Mental retardation
Definition-Qualifying
Limits the meaning of abstract
subjects
 slander vs. witty remark
 heavy vs. obese
 crude, inappropriate comments vs. sexual
harrassment
Definition-Cultural
Shaped by history, values,
experiences, attitudes of a national,
ethnic, or religious group
Definition-Personal
Expresses an individual’s viewpoints or
attitudes
Why the definition essay?
To establish meaning and provide
common understanding
To motivate people to accept a
particular point of view
Definition-Ideas on approaches
Challenge a widely accepted definition
Qualities and/or attributes of a subject
Establish boundaries
Distinguish between closely related
ideas
Strategies for establishing
definitions
 Use synonyms
 Provide descriptions
 Give examples
 Draw comparisons to more familiar ideas
 Provide a revised meaning
 Linguistic origin
 Negation-what it is not
 Stipulative-special restrictions on it
Definition-Now you try it!
 Choose a word, concept (energy),
object (microchip), type of person
(Yuppie), place (desert), a
phenomenon (rise in volunteerism),
or a complex issue (euthanasia).
Write one paragraph defining your
idea-stay away from formal,
denotative definitions!
 Examples in Composition book xxxviii
Comparison-Contrast
 Finding similarities (comparing) and
differences (contrasting)
 readwritethink.org
Comparison-Contrast
 One side at a time- organize essay so
that all points are discussed about
one subject before moving on to the
other subject.
Everything about subject A
A. Herald’s news coverage
1. International
2. National
3. Local
Comparison-Contrast
 One side at a time-continued
Everything about subject B
B. Beacon’s news coverage
1. International
2. National
3. Local
Comparison-Contrast
 Point-by-point method- organize by
comparing and contrasting both
subjects in the same area
First aspect of subject A and B
Herald: international coverage
Beacon: international coverage
Comparison-Contrast
 Point-by-point method
second aspect of subjects A and B
Herald: National coverage
Beacon: National coverage
third aspect of subjects A and B
Herald: Local coverage
Beacon: Local coverage
Comparison-Contrast Now you try
it!
 Write paragraph in which you
compare and contrast M&M’s to
Skittles. Use either one side at a
time or point-by-point and identify
which you are using.
 Examples in Composition Book xxxvxxxvi
Cause and Effect
 Causal analysis- point out reasons
and results
 i.e.- analyzing the outcome of an
election, report that links poor
nutrition to low academic
achievement, analyze impact of a
proposed tax cut or hike.
Cause and Effect
 Done well, these uncover the subtle
and surprising connections between
events or phenomena. By rooting out
causes and projecting effects, causal
analysis enables us to make sense of
our experiences, revealing a world
that is somewhat less arbitrary and
chaotic.
Cause and Effect
 In this kind of essay, the aim is to explain the causes
(reasons) or the effects (results) of an event or
situation.
e.g. Causes of air pollution (multiple factors leading
to air pollution).
e.g. Effects of watching too much TV (many effects of
a situation).
 Sometimes an event causes something to happen,
and that situation leads to another event, and it
causes another event to happen. This is called the
causal chain or domino effect.
e.g. Use of deodorants will bring the end of the world.
Cause and Effect
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Organization:
Depending on the topic, there may be three patterns of organization:
1. Multiple causes-->effect
In this pattern, the organization is as follows:
thesis statement: Air pollution is caused by the following factors: exhaust gases from
cars, uncontrolled factory releases, and burning of low-quality coal for heating.
I. exhaust gases from cars
A. government does not have enough control
B. citizens are not conscientious
II. uncontrolled factory gases
A. no regular checks on gases released
B. factories are inside the borders of residential areas
III. burning of low-quality coal for heating
A. no governmental control
B. other forms of energy too expensive
Each developmental paragraph is devoted to one of the causes of air pollution. Each
cause is supported by two minor supports. While writing, these major and minor ideas
should be adequately explained and exemplified as well.
Cause and Effect
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2. Cause-->Multiple effects
In this pattern, the effects of a certain situation are explained in separate
paragraphs, with the following organization:
thesis statement: Watching too much TV is one of the major sociological
issues of this century, which has many effects on the physiology and
psychology of people.
I. eating disorders
A. TV meals
B. obesity
II. communication problems
A. more violence
B. no interpersonal talk
Again, we have grouped related effects under two main points:
physiological and psychological. Then, we have supported each effect with
two minor supports (A and B). While writing, we should explain these major
and minor supports by giving examples and/or defining what we mean, as
well.
Cause and Effect
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3. Causal chain / Domino
In this pattern, the events lead to one another, as in the following
organization:
thesis statement: Using deodorants with chlorofluorocarbon gas will bring
the end of world.
I. Chlorofluorocarbon gases are contained in most deodorants and released
by some factories into the air.
II. This gas causes the ozone layer to become thinner and finally disappear
in patches.
III. The unfiltered ultraviolet rays of the sun cause overheating in the poles
of the earth, where the icebergs start to melt.
IV. The huge amount of water released from the poles leads to a rise in the
sea-level.
V. The sea will cover the land and this will be the end of the world.
Again, each major point should be supported with examples, statistics that
show that there are some factories and deodorants that release
chlorofluorocarbons, that there is a rise in the sea-level, etc.
Cause and Effect-Now you try it!
 What in your opinion are the causes
of the recent downturn in the US
economy? What effects has this had
specifically on your family? Write one
paragraph.
 Examples in Composition book xxxix
Modes-Summary-review
Question
How does X look, taste, smell, feel and sound?
What does x do? When? Where?
What are some typical instances of X?
What are x’s component parts? What different
forms can X take?
How does x work?
What is x like or unlike?
What leads to x? What are x’s consequences?
Mode/Pattern
Description
Narration
Illustration
Division-classification
Process analysis
Comparison-contrast
Cause-Effect
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Argumentation- Using clear thinking and
logic, the writer tries to convince readers of
the soundness of a particular opinion on a
controversial issue.
 Persuasion- Argumentation, but the writer
uses emotional language and dramatic
appeals to readers’ concerns, beliefs, and
values. Encourages readers to accept an
opinion, but also asks readers to commit to
a course of action.
Argumentation-Persuasion
 The argumentative essay is a genre
of writing that requires the student to
investigate a topic, collect, generate,
and evaluate evidence, and establish
a position on the topic in a concise
manner.
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Argumentative essay assignments generally call for
extensive research of literature or previously
published material. Argumentative assignments may
also require empirical research where the student
collects data through interviews, surveys,
observations, or experiments. Detailed research
allows the student to learn about the topic and to
understand different points of view regarding the topic
so that s/he may choose a position and support it with
the evidence collected during research. Regardless of
the amount or type of research involved,
argumentative essays must establish a clear thesis
and follow sound reasoning.
Argumentation-Persuasion
 The structure of the argumentative essay is held
together by the following:
 A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that
occurs in the first paragraph of the essay.
 In the first paragraph of an argument essay, students
should set the context by reviewing the topic in a
general way. Next the author should explain why the
topic is important (exigence) or why readers should
care about the issue. Lastly, students should present
the thesis statement. It is essential that this thesis
statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the
guidelines set forth in the assignment. If the student
does not master this portion of the essay, it will be
quite difficult to compose an effective or persuasive
essay.
Argument-Persuasion
 In the beginning of the paper, identify
the controversy surrounding the
issue!
 thesis- assertion or proposition-must
focus on a controversial issue and
state your view. Must be arguableopinion, not fact!
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Clear and logical transitions between the
introduction, body, and conclusion.
 Transitions are the mortar that holds the
foundation of the essay together. Without
logical progression of thought, the reader is
unable to follow the essay’s argument, and
the structure will collapse. Transitions
should wrap up the idea from the previous
section and introduce the idea that is to
follow in the next section.
Argumentation-Persuasion
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Body paragraphs that include evidential support.
Each paragraph should be limited to the discussion of one general
idea. This will allow for clarity and direction throughout the essay.
In addition, such conciseness creates an ease of readability for
one’s audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the
body of the essay must have some logical connection to the thesis
statement in the opening paragraph. Some paragraphs will directly
support the thesis statement with evidence collected during
research. It is also important to explain how and why the evidence
supports the thesis (warrant).
However, argumentative essays should also consider and explain
differing points of view regarding the topic. Depending on the
length of the assignment, students should dedicate one or two
paragraphs of an argumentative essay to discussing conflicting
opinions on the topic. Rather than explaining how these differing
opinions are wrong outright, students should note how opinions
that do not align with their thesis might not be well informed or
how they might be out of date.
Argumentation-Persuasion
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Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or
anecdotal).
The argumentative essay requires well-researched,
accurate, detailed, and current information to support the
thesis statement and consider other points of view. Some
factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal evidence should
support the thesis. However, students must consider
multiple points of view when collecting evidence. As noted
in the paragraph above, a successful and well-rounded
argumentative essay will also discuss opinions not aligning
with the thesis. It is unethical to exclude evidence that may
not support the thesis. It is not the student’s job to point
out how other positions are wrong outright, but rather to
explain how other positions may not be well informed or up
to date on the topic.
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Seek to create goodwill! Since you want to
convince readers of your position’s
soundness, you have to be careful about
alienating readers- especially those who
don’t agree with you!
 Avoid close-minded, morally superior
language (“Anyone can see that…”).
 Exaggerated, overly emotional language
can also antagonize readers.
“Truckers, the beer-bellied bullies of the
highways, have no respect for other drivers
or the speed limit.”
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Inductive Reasoning- involves
examination of specific cases, facts,
or examples and then based on these
details drawing a conclusion or
making a generalization. (Specific to
general)
 Deductive Reasoning- begins with a
generalization that is then applied to
a specific case. (General to specific)
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Deductive Reasoning
Syllogism- 3 step form of reasoning!
1. Major premise- general statement
about an entire group
2. Minor premise- a statement about an
individual within that group
3. Conclusion about that individual
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Deductive reasoning
Syllogism
major premise- In an accident, large
cars are safer than small cars.
minor premise- The Turbo Titan is a
large car.
conclusion- In an accident, the Turbo
Titan will be safer than a small car.
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Now you try it!
Major premise
Minor premise
Conclusion
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Toulmin Logic
Claim- the thesis, proposition, or conclusion
Data- the evidence (facts, statistics,
examples, observations, expert opinions)
used to convince readers of the claim’s
validity
Warrant- the underlying assumption that
justifies moving from evidence to claim
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Toulmin logic
The train engineer was under
the influence of drugs when
the train crashed.
Transportation employees
entrusted with the public’s
safety should be tested for
drug use.
(Data)
(Claim)
Transportation employees entrusted with the public’s safety
should not be allowed on the job if they use drugs.
(Warrant)
Argument-Persuasion
 Logical Fallacies- (gaps in logic)
eliminate from your own reasoning
and recognize in the opposing side!!
1. post hoc fallacy- (short for a Latin
phrase meaning “after this, therefore
because of this”) occurs when you
conclude a cause-effect relationship
exists simply because one event
preceded the other.
Argumentation-Persuasion
 post hoc fallacy example
There is a growing number of
immigrants in Mesa.
Mesa is in an economic decline.
Therefore, the immigrants arrival
caused the decline.
Denies other reasons for economic
decline! Relies on co-occurrence.
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Logical Fallacies cont.
2. non sequitur fallacy- (Latin for “it
does not follow.”) a more blatant
muddying of cause-effect
relationships! A conclusion is drawn
that has no logical connection to the
evidence cited.
Argumentation-Persuasion
 non sequitar fallacy example
Millions of Americans own cars, so there is no
need to fund public transportation.
The faulty conclusion disregards the millions of
American who don’t own cars; it also
ignores pollution and road congestion, both
of which could be reduced if people had
access to safe, reliable public
transportation!
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Logical Fallacies
3. ad hominem argument- (Latin “to the
man.”) occurs when someone
attacks a person and not a point of
view
Also called “mudslinging” and is a
poor substitute for a reasoned
argument!
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Logical fallacies
4. appeals to questionable or faulty
authority- “sources close to, an
unidentified spokesperson states,
experts claim, and studies show.”
If these people and reports are so
reliable than they should be clearly
identified!!
*Think about advertisements!!
Argumentation-Persuasion
Logical Fallacies
Begging the question- failure to establish proof for a
debatable point! The writer expects readers to
accept as a given a premise that is actually
controversial!
For instance, you would have trouble convincing readers
that prayer should be banned from public schools if
you base your argument on the premise that school
prayer violates the U.S. Constitution. If the
Constitution does, either explicitly or implicitly,
prohibit prayer in public education, your essay must
demonstrate that fact. You can’t build a strong
argument if you pretend there’s no controversy
surrounding your premise!

5.
Argument-Persuasion
 Logical Fallacies
6. False Analogy- disregards significant
dissimilarities and wrongly implies
that because two things share some
characteristics, they are therefore
alike in all respects!
Argument-Persuasion
 False Analogy- example
You might compare nicotine and marijuana.
Both involve health risks and have addictive
properties. If, however, you go on to
conclude that driving while smoking a
cigarette isn’t illegal, so smoking while
driving marijuana shouldn’t be illegal either.
You have overlooked a major difference
between marijuana and nicotine!
Marijuana impairs perception and
coordination while there is no evidence that
nicotine does the same!
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Logical fallacies
7. either/or fallacy- when a writer
assumes that a particular viewpoint
or course of action can have only one
of two diametrically opposed
outcomes- either totally this or totally
that.
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Either/or fallacy example
Unless colleges continue to offer scholarships
based solely on financial need, no one who
is underprivileged will be able to attend
college.
Such a statement ignores the fact that bright
underprivileged students receive
scholarships based on academic excellence,
talents, potential, or sports!
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Logical Fallacies
8. red herring argument- intentional
digression from the issue- a ploy to
deflect attention from the matter at
hand.
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Red Herring example
A writer is arguing that condoms should not
be dispensed to high school students. A
red herring would be introduced if the
writer began to rail against parents who fail
to provide their children with information
about sex. Most people would agree that
parents should provide such information;
however, the issue being discussed is not
parents’ responsibilities, but the pros and
cons of schools’ distributing condoms to
students.
Argumentation-Persuasion
 A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis,
but readdresses it in light of the evidence provided.
 It is at this point of the essay that students may begin
to struggle. This is the portion of the essay that will
leave the most immediate impression on the mind of
the reader. Therefore, it must be effective and logical.
Do not introduce any new information into the
conclusion; rather, synthesize the information
presented in the body of the essay. Restate why the
topic is important, review the main points, and review
your thesis. You may also want to include a short
discussion of more research that should be completed
in light of your work.
Argumentation-Persuasion
 A Complete Argument
 Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a
conversation or debate with a classmate. If I were to
discuss the cause of World War II and its current
effect on those who lived through the tumultuous
time, there would be a beginning, middle, and end to
the conversation. In fact, if I were to end the
argument in the middle of my second point, questions
would arise concerning the current effects on those
who lived through the conflict. Therefore, the
argumentative essay must be complete, and logically
so, leaving no doubt as to its intent or argument.
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Complex issues and detailed research call
for complex and detailed essays.
Argumentative essays discussing a number
of research sources or empirical research
will most certainly be longer than five
paragraphs. Authors may have to discuss
the context surrounding the topic, sources
of information and their credibility, as well
as a number of different opinions on the
issue before concluding the essay. Many of
these factors will be determined by the
assignment.
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Main concern: Soundness or logos of
your argument: the facts, statistics,
examples, and authoritative
statements you gather to support
your viewpoint. This supporting
evidence must be unified, sufficient,
specific, accurate, and representative!
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Second concern: Sensitivity to pathos- the
emotional power of language: Pathos
appeals to readers’ needs, values, and
attitudes.
 Pathos derives partly from the writer’s
language. Connotative language-words
with strong emotional overtones- can move
readers to a point of view and even cause
them to act!
Argumentation-Persuasion
 Third concern: ethos- your credibility and
reliability. You can not expect readers to
accept or act on your viewpoint unless you
convince them that you know what you are
talking about and are worth listening to.
You will come across as knowledgeable and
trustworthy if you present a logical,
reasoned argument that takes opposing
views into account! Make sure your
appeals to emotion aren’t excessive!
Overwrought emotionalism undercuts
credibility!
Argument-Persuasion
 Audience
Supportive audience- already
agrees
with your position and trusts your
credibility.
Wavering audience- readers are
interested in what you have to say
but are not fully committed your
viewpoint.
Hostile audience- an apathetic, skeptical,
or hostile audience is difficult to
convince.
Argument-Persuasion-Now you try
it!
 Write one paragraph in which you
convince an a board of teachers that
volunteer service hours should or
should not be required for high school
graduation. Be careful to avoid
logical fallacies and what kind of
audience do you have?
 Example in Composition book xxxix
Bibliography-mostly from The
Longman Writer
 Bogazici University. “Cause Effect Essay.”
21 Nov. 2011.
http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/types
%20of%20essays/Cause%20and%20effect%2
0Essay.htm
 Gaffney, Beth. “Definition” ppt. College
Prep. Mountain View High School. 23
Oct. 2007.
 International Reading Association.
“Comparison-Contrast Guide.” 21 Nov.
2011.
http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resourc
es/interactives/compcontrast/
Bibliography Continued
 John A Logan College. “Process Analysis:
How to?”
www.jalc.edu/departmentpages/.../ 10
process_analysis_how_to.pdf 14 Nov
2011.
 Nadaell, Judith and Linda McMeniman
and John Langan. The Longman
Writer. New York: Longman, 2003
 Purdue-OWL. “The Argumentative Essay.”
Purdue University.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resou
rce/685/05/ 22 Nov. 2011.
Bibliography Continued
 Purdue-OWL. “The Narrative Essay.” Purdue
University.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resou
rce/685/04/ 13 Nov 2011
 Seldess, Jesse. “How to Write a Descriptive
Essay.” http://www.writeexpress.com/desc
riptive-essay.html 13 Nov 2011.
 Wheeling Jesuit University. Academic Resource
Center. “How Do I Write a Classification/Division
Essay?” http://www.wju.edu/arc/handouts/
classif_div.pdf 14 Nov 2011.