Health Psychology:
The field of psychology that uses psychological principles to encourage healthy lifestyle and to minimize the impact of stress.
Stress:
Any events or circumstances that strains or exceeds an individual’s ability to cope
Life events: psychologically significant events that occur in a person’s life
- Negative life events
- Positive events
Frustration
the situation that is the result of being unable to satisfy a motive
Conflict
occur when two or more motives cannot be satisfied because they interfere with other.
- Approach-Approach conflict:
Conflict to choose between two positive goals of approximately equal values.
- Avoidance-avoidance conflict:
Conflict to choose between two negative outcomes of approximately equal values.
- Approach-Avoidance conflict:
Conflict which achieving a positive goal will produce a negative outcome as well.
- Multiple Approach-Avoidance:
Conflict that requires the individual to choose between alternatives each of which of contain both positive and negative consequences.
Pressure: stress that arises from the threat of negative events.
Environmental Condition: stress that arises from temperature, noisy, air pollution, humidity.

- We react to stress as a whole: Stress usually produces both psychological and physiological reactions.
- Our psychological and bodily reactions to stress are highly similar, whether the stress is physical or psychological.
Stress leads to changes in many aspects of our psychological states and process
(emotion, motivation, cognition)
Bio psychosocial model of health: The theory that physical health is influenced not only by biological factors but also by psychological and social factors
The mobilization of the body to ward off threats, characterized by a three-stage pattern of the alarm reaction, the resistance stage and the exhaustion stage.
Alarm Reaction:
The body’s initial response to any threats, including psychological stress, is to mobilize its stored resources. (Nervous system increase heart rate, blood pressure, muscles)
Resistance Stage: The body resources have been fully mobilized and resistance to stress is high.
Exhaustion Stage : If stress continues, the individual’s resources may become exhausted and resistance to stress and infection is low.
GAS is the body’s protective response to dangers or stress, it work best during emergencies (Best defense and own worst enemy)
Modern-day stressor call for all of the body’s reactions of general adaptation syndrome. Although GAS is a Life Saver in emergencies, it can be life-threatening if stress is prolonged.

Coping: attempts by individuals to deal with source of stress and control their reactions to it.
Effective coping
Removing stress: one effective way of dealing with stress is to remove the source of stress from our lives.
Cognitive coping: our cognitions are intimately linked to our reactions to stressful events. One effective method of coping then is reappraisal. Reappraisal is a changing how a person thinks about or interprets a potentially stressful event to reduce its stressfulness. This refers to changing how we think about or interpret the stressful events that push and shove our lives.
Managing stress reactions: when the source of stress cannot realistically be removed or changed, another effective option is to manage our psychological and physiological reactions to stress.
Ineffective Coping
Withdrawal: withdraw from the stress
Aggression: react aggressively to frustration and other stressful situation
Self-medication: cope stress by using tobacco, alcohol and other drugs
Defense mechanisms: according to Freud theory, the unrealistic strategies to defend the person from uncomfortable tension
- Displacement: redirecting emotions to a substitute target.
- Sublimation: redirecting 'wrong' urges into socially acceptable actions.
- Projection: attributing uncomfortable feelings to others.
- Reaction Formation: overacting in the opposite way to the fear.
- Regression: going back to acting as a child.
- Rationalization: creating false but credible justifications.
- Repression: pushing uncomfortable thoughts into the subconscious.
- Denial: claiming/believing that what is true to be actually false.
- Intellectualization: taking an objective viewpoint.
Learning to relax: progressive relaxation training teaches individuals to deeply relax their large body muscles.
Eating right, exercising, and doing just what the doctor ordered

Stress is an adaptive response to an external situation
#Stress is not simply anxiety
#Stress is not simply nervous tension
#Stress is not necessary something damaging, bad or to be avoided
- The type of stress
- Stress is normal and often quite healthy, when the ability to cope with stress begins to let us down, we may experience the road of burnout (losing sense of basic purpose and fulfillment of the week, sense of isolation, relate differently to other an work they do)
- Closely associate with helping profession
: including things such as societal and technological change, globalization, the family, reaction and economic, etc.
Administrative Policies and strategies
Ex. - Downsizing
- Advanced technology
Organizational structure and design
Ex. - Specialization
Organizational processes
Ex. - Tight control
Working conditions
Ex. - Toxic
- Poor light
- Lack of group cohesiveness
- Lack of social support

Type A and B personality pattern
A: rapidly aggressive moving (more stress)
B: never in a hurry, patient (low stress)
So Type A is more stress than B
- Personal control: people’s feeling about their ability to control a situation
- Learned helplessness: we learned that the situation is not able to avoid
- Psychological hardiness: person who able to cope successfully with extreme stressors

Group:
An important sociological and social psychological unit of analysis.
Group Dynamic: The interactions and forces among group members in social situations.
Propinquity : individual affiliate with one another because of spatial or geographical proximity.
Classic theory of George Homans : based on activities, interaction, and sentimental.
Theodore Newcomb’s Classic Balance Theory
: the persons are attracted to one another on the basis of similar attitudes and values toward commonly relevant objects and goals.
Exchange theory: based on reward-cost outcomes of interaction.
- Forming
- Storming
- Norming
- Performing
- Adjourning
- Economically
- Security
- Social Need
Feeling of comradeship, loyalty, and common sense of value among its members
the characteristics of coalition are as follows
- Interacting group of individual
- Deliberately constructed by the members for specific purpose
- Independent of formal organization’s structure
- Lacking a formal internal structure
- External Forms
- Concerted member action, act as a group

- Membership group
- Reference group
- In-group vs. Out-group
- Formal group
 Functional department committee / standing committee / cross functional team
 Factional group / Team
 Political group
 Friendship group
 Common interest
- Organize work around intact group
- Selection, training, and rewarding of members
- Enforce strong norms
- Distributing resources to a group rather than an individual basis
- Promoting intergroup rivalry
Norm and Roles in Informal Group
Norms: the “ought” of behavior.
Role: a position that has expectations evolving from established norms.
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Boundary spanner: facilitators and bridge between units or group.
Buffer: protect and filter negative or disappointing news.
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Lobbyist: promote and tell others how successful and important the group is to outside.
Negotiator: act on behalf of the group to get resources and make deals.
Spokesperson: voice of the group.

- More effective total system
- Lightens the workload on management
- Fills in gaps in a manager’s abilities
- Provides a safety value for employee emotions
- Improves communication
Norm Violation
: Antisocial behaviors
Role Ambiguity: When the group member unclear about the dictates
Role Conflict: Perform conflicting task or perform task that conflict with his/her own personal value
Groupthink: a deterioration of metal efficiency
Risky Shift phenomenon: make more risky decision than the individual member would on their own
Social Loafing: member reduce their efforts and performance levels
Nature of a team: the characteristics of team (shared leadership role, mutual accountability, and specific purpose, collective and synergetic work product, open-end and active
The more emphasize present types of team:
- Cross Functioning Teams
- Virtual Team
- Self-Managed Team
How to make Team more effectiveness:
- Creating the right environment
- Interdependent task
- Small team size
- Members are motivated and being competent
- Team cohesion

Research evidence to enhance team effectiveness
1. Team Building
2. Collaboration
3. Group leadership
4. Cultural / Global Issues

- First study to analyze leadership from the standpoint of scientific reactions
- Different styles can produce different reactions
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Authoritarian: very directive and allow no participation
Democratic (Leader follower): encourage group discussion and decision making
Laissez Faire: give complete freedom to the group
After developed leader behavior description questionnaire (LBDQ) to analyze leadership in numerous groups and situations, researcher understood how leader carry out their leadership function
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Initiating structure: concern task and goal orientation
Consideration: recognize individual need and relationship
Early Michigan leadership studies (Same time as Ohio)
Survey Research Center at Michigan State began their studies of leadership at Prudential Insurance Company
“The pairs of groups were selected for examination”
Traits Theories of Leadership
- Intelligence (Leader was more intelligence than the average group)
- Big five traits (OCEAN)
Emerging State and skill for leadership
- Based capacities those open to development and change
- Study of leader “competencies” that related to leader effectiveness
 Drive: Leadership motivation - Integrity -Self confident
 Intelligence: Knowledge of the business – Emotional
Group Exchange Theories of Leadership
- Exchange theory: there must be a positive exchange between the leader and follower in order for group goals
- Follower’s impact on Leader: followers may affect leader as much as leader affect followers

- Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX)/Vertical dyad linkage
(VDL): leader treat individual subordinate differently
 In-group: Leader will be more responsive and spend more time to lead subordinates of the group
 Out-group: leader trend to supervise and depend on formal role and authority
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Contingency Theory of Leadership (Fiedler’s contingency)
Theory that emphasize the important of both situation and the leader’s characteristics in determining leader effectiveness
Leader’s characteristic (styles)
- Human-oriented:
leader who wants to be like by and get along well with their subordinates
- Task – directed: leader who performs at high level and accomplish all of their assigned tasks
Leader Preferred Coworker Scale (LPC Scale)
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High LPC Leader: least preferred coworker in positive term
 Low LPC Leader: least preferred coworker in negative term
Situational Characteristics
- Leader-member relation : the relationship between a leader and his or her follower
- Task structure: The extent to which the work to be performed by a group is clearly defined
- Position Power: the amount of formal authority a leader has
Path-Goal Theory of leadership (Robert House)
Four leader styles of leadership
 Directive Leadership: leader gives specific direction, subordinates know exactly
 Supportive Leadership: approachable
Leader is friendly and
 Participative Leadership: leader asks for and use suggestions

 Achievement-orient Leadership: Leader set challenging goals for subordinates and show confident
- Determine what outcome
- Giving subordinates desired outcome to achieve their goal
- Make sure subordinates believe that they can obtain their work goal
Charismatic Leadership Theory (Robert House)
Charismatic leadership: profound and extraordinary effect on followers
Characterized by self-confidence
, confidence in their associates, ideological, and the use of personal
- Effects on followers: emulate leader’s value and behavior, performance beyond expectation
Transformational Leadership Theory
- Transactional leadership : involve exchange relationship between leader and followers
- Transformational leadership
: leader’s shifting the values, belief, and needs of their followers
Social Cognitive Theory
Leader and associate have a negotiable, reciprocal interactive relationship and more consciously aware of how they can modify each other’s behavior through cognition and the contingent environment
Substitute for Leadership
- Substitutes for leadership: make leader behavior unnecessary and redundant
- Neutralizers for leadership: prevent leader from having in a certain way or that counteract the behavior
Authentic Leadership
- Owning one’s personal experiences: the real acting and me inside accord with the true self
Leadership across Culture
- Personal Value (both manager and followers)
- Background of the manager
(education, social class, and family status)
- Interpersonal styles and skills

Project GLOBE and the future of international Leadership
Studies
Global leadership and organizational behavior effectiveness
(GLOBE) based theory to describe understand and predict the impact of cultural variables on leadership
- Power distance: degree to which member expect power to be distribute equally
- Uncertainty avoidance: the extent a society, organization or group rely on norms and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of future events
- Humane orientation: encourage and reward individuals for being fair, generous caring and kind to others Institutional collectivism: encourages and rewards the collective distribution of resource and collective action
- In-group collectivism: express pride, loyalty and cohesiveness in their organization and family
- Assertiveness: assertive, confrontation, and aggressive in their relation with others
- Gender egalitarianism: collective minimizes gender inequality
- Future Orientation: engages in future-oriented behavior
(planning, investing in the future)
- Performance Orientation: collective encourage and reward group members for performance improvement and excellence

Communication: the transfer of information and understanding from one person to another
- Every act of communication influences the organization in some way.
- When communication is effective in tends to encourage better performance and job satisfaction
- Open communication is generally better than restricted communication.
Ex: Open-book management: provide employees with financial and other operating numbers
The process by which a sender reaches a receiver with a message (always requires eight steps)
- Develop ideas: what sender wants to send
- Encode the message: convert the ideas in to suitable words
- Transmit the message: finding a channel to communicate with
- Receive the message: the message was transferred to the receiver
- Decode the message: receiver must decode the message to understand
- Accept the message: receiver decides to accept or reject the message
- Use the message: receiver is in control of the message and what to do
- Provide feedback: respond to sender
- Polarization
- Defensive reasoning
- Cognitive dissonance
- Face-saving
- Self-concept

Communication barriers (Noise) : communication interferences that may entirely prevent communication, filter out part of it or give it incorrect meaning understanding
- Personal Barriers
-Human emotion, value, and poor listening habits
-Difference in education, race, sex, socioeconomic status and other factors
-Distracting verbal habits (repetition of “Ah”, or ending sentence with “you know”)
-Psychological distance: a feeling of emotionally separated
- Physical Barriers: communication interference that occur in the environment in which the communication take place
(Ex: distracting noise, distance between people, walls around worker’s cubicle, static that interfere radio message)
-Proxemics: the study of physical distance between two parties as they communicate
- Semantics Barriers: the science of meaning, communication is symbolic (word, picture and action) that suggest certain meaning, this barrier arise from limitations in the symbols with which we communicate
Verbal Communication: communicate with other by using words
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Context: every word has several meaning (surround key word with the context of other words)
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Social cue
: positive or negative bits of information that influence how people react to a communication
 Readability: the process of making wring and speech more understandable (adapt the of word)
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Picture: pictures (blueprint, chart, diagram, map, visual aid, etc.) are used to clarify word communication
Nonverbal Communication (Action): communicate with others by using action
 Actions have meaning
- Failure to act is an important way of communicating
- Actions speak louder than words
Credibility gap
: the difference between what someone says and does
 Body language
Ex: facial expression (eye contact, frown, furrowed brow), physical touch, hand and hip moment and sighing, etc.
- Nonverbal communication can be advertent or intentional
- Interpretation is highly subjective and loaded with potential for errors

Downward Communication
the flow of information from higher to lower levels of authority
- Develop a positive communication attitude
- Must continually work to get informed
- Plan for communication
- Develop trust
 Communication overload
 Acceptance of communication
- Job instruction
- Performance feedback
- News
- Social support
Upward Communication: the flow of information from lower levels of authority to the higher management
- Delay: slow movement of information up to higher level
- Filtering: screening out of information
- Organizational silence: withholding information about the problems or issues on the part of employee
- Need for response: the more responsive from manager can encourage further upward message
- Distortion: willful modification of message intended to achieve one’s personal objective
- Questions
- Active listening
- Employee meeting
- An open-door policy
- Participation in social group

communication across chains of commands, necessity for job coordination
- Boundary spanner: employee who perform lateral communication
(strong communication link with their department, other units, and external communities)
a group of people who develop and maintain contact to exchange information informally, usually a shared interest
- Electronic mail: communication system that allow you to send a message to someone (or hundreds of people) almost instantaneously
- Blogs: online diary or journal created and update frequently by individual to express their personal thoughts, musings, and commentaries on topic of interest to them
- Telecommuting: working electronically from one’s home
- Virtual office: physical office desk is replaced with communication tools (e-mail, cell phone, laptop, palm, fax, modem, teleconference)
is an informal communication system that coexists with managements formal communications systems
- Send message orally, written, handwritten, and even electronics
Feature is like cluster chain
: each link in the chain tends to inform a cluster of people instead of only one
- Liaison individuals : an active communication in the grapevine
The Interest and ambiguity situations/messages are normally the cause

: specific procedures developed for repetitive and routine problems
: decision required by unique and complex management problems
Decision: means to achieve some results or to solve some problems
Organizational mechanisms that attempt to achieve desired state
Establishing Specific Goals and Objective and Measuring Results
- Establishing Specific Goals and Objective will dictate which results must be achieved
Identity the Problems
- Problem is indicated by the gap between organization goal and objectives and the levels of actual performance
- Identifying the exact problem can be hindered by certain factors
- Perceptual problem: negative information may by selectively perceived to distort its true meaning it may also be totally ignored
- Define problems in terms of solutions: from of jumping to conclusion (which suggest a particular solution)
- Identify symptoms as problems: symptom of situation may not be the real problem
Developing Alternatives
- The search process
: relevant internal and external environment of the organization are investigated to provide information that can be developed into possible alternatives to solve the problem
- Scenario Analysis
: one means to broaden the development of new alternatives that would have been overlooked under traditional practices

Evaluating Alternative
- Evaluation should be guided by previously established goals and objectives
- Three Possible Conditions of Alternative-Outcome relationship
- Certainty: decision maker has complete knowledge of the probability of the outcome of each alternative
- Uncertainty: decision maker has absolutely no knowledge of the probability of the outcome of each alternative
- Risk: decision maker has some probabilistic estimate of the outcome of each alternative
Choosing an Alternative
- When manager choose an alternative, two objectives cannot be fully achieved simultaneously
- Organizational objective may also be at the expense of societal objective
- Optimal solution:
are often impossible decision (cannot possible know all of the available alternatives and the consequences occurring of these alternatives)
- Satisficing: select the alternative that meets an acceptable
(satisfactory) standard
Implement the Decision
Decision must be transformed into behavior in an organization
(Decision involve people)
Control and Evaluation
Measure of results (Actual result Vs. Planned result) and changes must be made if deviations exist
Ethics decision making:
It is systems that guide line the individual’s behavior.
Value:
Decision maker use when confronted with a situation required choice.

Personalities:
- Personality variables
: Attitude, believe, and need of individual.
- Situation variables : External situation in which individual find themselves.
- Interaction variables: The responsibility of individual in each situation.
Propensity for risk:
Potential for dissonance
: Reduce cognitive dissonance
- Seek information to support your decision.
- Distort information in your way that support their decision
- Adopt less favorable of the forgone alternative.
Escalation on commitment:
Self-justification: Decision maker don’t want to admit about their mistake in their decision.
Individual vs. Group Decision Making
- Group is superior to individual decision making (majority vote, more expertise, and perspectives)
Research on group decision making
- As decision more from individual to consensus decision making, group do improve the quality of the decision
Techniques for Stimulating Creativity in Group Decision Making
Brain storming: technique that promote creativity by encouraging ideas generation through noncritical discussion
- State any ideas regardless of how extreme or outlandish (No idea is too ridiculous)
- Idea presented belong to the group, not to the person so members can utilize and build on other’s idea
- Generate idea but not evaluate (No idea can be criticized)

Delphi process
: technique that promote creativity by using anonymous judgment of ideas to reach a consensus decision
- Questionnaires are sent to members via mail, members independently generate ideas (completed questionnaire are return)
- Analysts summarize response as the group consensus and feed summary back to members together with a second questionnaire for reassessment
- Members independently evaluate their earlier responses
Nominal Group Technique (NGT): technique that promote creativity by bringing people together in a very structured meeting that allow little verbal communication (group decision is the mathematically pooled outcome of individual votes)
- Group of 7-10 members sit around table: do not speak to one another, each write ideas on a pad of paper
- Each member present idea in “round robin fashion” until all ideas are presented
- Structured discussion occurs, each idea receive attention
- Each member votes by ranking alternative