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Final Paper: EDCI 522
Language and Literacy
Christal Matsumoto
La Sierra University
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Living in the state of California, in which 25% or 1.4 million of its students are classified as
English Learners (Hill, 2012), the need for an effective, efficient and quality language arts
program and curriculum is glaringly apparent. It becomes even more essential as we come to
understand that this number is an inadequate representation of the actual number of ELs in the
California education system as students who transition through and out of the category are no
longer accounted for in this statistic. It is no wonder California has strict requirements for each
of its teachers, both in the elementary and secondary levels, which necessitate a valid California
teaching credential, proof of second-language learning, and most importantly a passing score on
the California Teacher of English Learners (CTEL) test and/or course work in a CTEL program
(CTC, 2014). A properly trained and prepared workforce with Crosscultural, Language, and
Academic Development (CLAD) certification is not merely a bonus but a must to meet the needs
of California’s growing population of English learners.
English language development in the education system is surrounded by controversy which
mainly focuses on effective programs and instruction to adequately equip students for academic
and career success. One such issue is the ongoing debate, dubbed the Reading Wars in media,
over the use of Phonics versus Whole language in curriculum which has been a source of great
dispute for many decades, as far back as the early 1900’s (Reyhner, 2008). Both of these
theories focus on drastically different aspects of reading and have positive and negative points.
Phonics is considered a “bottom up” approach (Reyhner, 2008), which prepares readers to
decode text. Unfortunately, a solely phonics-based curriculum has the tendency to become
overly systematic and standardized; leaving little room for student exploration of interests and
lacks quality literature instead opting for the basal style of reading program with limitations.
Whole language, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with “provid[ing] a literature rich
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environment . . . combin[ing] speaking, listening, reading, and writing” (Reyhner, 2008). This
becomes problematic for those students who require more extensive instruction in phonics as the
whole language curriculum incorporates phonics as merely one of its units and “emphasize[s] the
meaning of text over the sounds of letters” (Reyhner, 2008). In response, as far back as 1955,
Rudolph Flesh wrote Why Jonny Can’t Read criticizing this one-sided approach. In my opinion,
both sides of this “war” have valid points and the education system would do best to create a
well-balanced curriculum in which phonics within the first formative years of language
development is the principal focus without belaboring it into the higher levels of education in
which students should be more attuned to their own interests and where challenging reading with
more academic language is the bulk of their texts.
Another issue in English language development that has been problematic for several
decades is the achievement gap, found in America and internationally.
The crux of the
achievement gap lies chiefly in ethnicity and the excessive discord between the academic success
of those of minority backgrounds and the Caucasian population, which directly effects their entry
into higher levels of education, career mobility and earning potential. The difficulty experienced
by English learners in their academic careers can be traced to the lack of English literacy and
speaking within their homes. Although much of the achievement gap is attributed to what is
termed Out of School Factors or OSF (Berliner, 2009), these can be directly correlated to English
language development. The limited English exposure students receive at home affects their
education insofar as their initial entry into school is as an English learner with a limited reading
and spoken vocabulary and with little capable support from home. Numerous strategies have
been attempted by schools and national education with varying degrees of success. This includes
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the implementation of Ebonics (African American Vernacular English), the inclusion of English
language learners in the mainstream classroom via Proposition 227 and bilingual schools.
Another issue that surrounds English language development is assessment, especially in the
case of EL students who may struggle with formal, standardized tests. These require a higher
level of academic language to comprehend the questions which may hinder student performance
in the actual subject content. According to Tompkins, when assessing a student’s language
proficiency it is important to employ authentic measurements of a student’s grasp of language
(2013) rather than standardized testing which targets specific language arts components while
employing the writing of someone other than the student. Quality assessment should therefore
focus on the student’s process of language use in all its aspects and what they produce as
examples of their learning and abilities (Tompkins, 2013). This ought to include anecdotal
observations or those made during guided reading groups, a more formal reading inventory, inclass writing assignments such as journaling, creative or formal writing. These Performance
Task assessments are far more efficient and authentic as they assess students on their ability to
perform the task rather than their ability to decipher test questions and edit the test makers’
writing. Through these kinds of assessments teachers observe the students’ grammar, syntax,
semantics, vocabulary, spelling, phonics abilities, phonemic awareness, reading comprehension,
etc. without requiring the students to participate in additional, time consuming and often
frustrating testing. It also eliminates the problem of test anxiety which plagues students and
gives inaccurate evaluations of students’ abilities. This type of assessment can be employed
throughout the year, which when compiled in a portfolio provides a more complete and accurate
view of the student’s progress in all aspects of language arts. Encouraging students to express
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their knowledge on subject content through a variety of writing assignments is also in keeping
with the format and goals of the Common Core State Standards.
The development of strong reading and writing abilities early in their educational careers is
vital to academic success for students. This is achieved through the inclusion of several principal
factors for literacy which include comprehension, fluency, phonemic awareness, print concepts,
a strong grasp of both written and verbal academic and conversational language, a wide
repertoire of sight words and competency in both creative and expository writing (Tompkins,
2013). The basic building blocks of reading rest on the foundations of phonemic awareness, and
print concepts upon without which many of the remaining essentials of literacy would be
impossible. Also, many of these elements of literacy do not operate independently from each
other and therefore share a symbiotic relationship which can be advantageous to the learning or
remedial process. For instance, several of these, such as fluency and comprehension, can be
incorporated through a few encompassing strategies that build upon one another. Repetition is
an effective strategy by which students attain fluency; reading smoothly and with minimal
difficulty when presented with new or challenging words (Tompkins, 2013). Through repetition
students become familiar with the text and can anticipate the repetitive patterns to the point
where words or sentences found in a book that has been mastered flow freely in an unfamiliar
one (Tompkins, 2013). Once children reach fluency, decoding and phonics are effortless and
advancements in comprehension become a natural progression (Tompkins, 2013).
English Learners, or ELs, would benefit greatly in their journey to English proficiency from a
program, which, at the very least, included five elements listed by Tompkins in her Language
Arts: Patterns of Practice text: “a stress free environment, many opportunities for students to use
English in low-risk situations, context-rich activities, language-rich environment, and assisting
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students through reasonable augmentation in writing and demonstration of task expectations”
(Tompkins, 2013). All of these contribute to a culture within the classroom which fosters
literacy, competency and confidence in the students’ own success. I will focus on the three I feel
are most important to student success.
First, creating a classroom culture in which students feel comfortable expressing themselves
without fear of judgment for their errors in grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary, is essential
for EL student progress toward language mastery. Allowing students to share willingly rather
than pressuring them to contribute, which can be a point of embarrassment and undue pressure to
perform a task at which a student may feel failure is inevitable. This will create a sense of
security and an atmosphere conducive to participation. Another would be the employment of
comfortable disequilibrium in which the instructor utilizes language which both challenges the
student’s progress and facilitates student success in acquiring new and challenging vocabulary.
Most important in creating a comfortable classroom setting is to build a supportive rapport with
the EL student in which the instructor takes an interest in their students’ lives. Asking how their
day is, listening to their stories about home or school life or even simply wishing them a great
day in the morning can relate a teacher’s sincere concern for their student beyond assignments
and tests. Also, for their academic success, a teacher can demonstrate their attentiveness to
student needs by implementing very simplistic strategies such as including support resources
such as books which highlight their culture in the classroom library, incorporating texts that
feature their culture in thematic units, or having the students share aspects of their culture with
the class: food, music, language or dance. I have observed students proudly provide a favorite
cultural food for their class and share through public speaking the process of preparation, its
cultural significance and its importance within their family. These students would, previously,
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have been too self-conscious of their presumed language barrier to do an independent
presentation from the front of the classroom.
Second, incorporating strategies which allow students to share and participate with their
peers comfortably is also an important characteristic of an effective program. Cooperative
learning activities and sharing with partners can be a form of practice before having to contribute
to a general class discussion or a more formal oral presentation. Their time spent communicating
in small groups or with partners is a moment in which students refine and organize their ideas,
vocabulary and sentence structure with a less intimidating audience of one or two. Participation
in activities with classmates who are either English learners or are English proficient will
naturally lead to the employment and improvement of grammar and vocabulary from instruction
and vice versa. As students become more confident in their mastery of subject matter, its
vocabulary and corresponding sentence structures, they will be able to transition; substituting
social language for academic. An example of one such activity, that I have seen successfully put
into practice, is group projects which incorporate both cooperative learning and the summative
assessment of subject matter proficiency. During such activities, students utilize content-related
vocabulary to communicate with group members and exhibit proficient understanding of
materials. To successfully fulfill project requirements, students must communicate with their
fellow group members effectively, incorporating both BICS and CALP into their interactions.
Finally, forming a language-rich environment in the classroom can be accomplished through
front loading lessons with activities that provide students with background knowledge via
manipulatives, visuals and other items that build an authentic and relevant bridge between
student and subject matter (Tompkins, 2013). This then prepares them for more meaningful and
authentic involvement in class activities which thereby leads to mastery of not only content but
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language proficiency within the subject matter covered. By showing students videos of the
eruption of Mt. St. Helen’s prior to coverage of the material in a science/literature unit, students
were able to openly discuss volcanoes, the physics of the explosion, and the effects on the
surrounding area using scientific terminology that they had previously known only in their
primary language. The students were excited and surprised to find that their knowledge of the
more scientific aspects of volcanoes was broader and more proficient than they had previously
assumed. Because the video gave visual representations of the scientific terms, the students were
able to associate these with their counterparts in their native tongue.
Creating a language-rich environment in which students are inundated with new vocabulary
through easily accessible means such as word walls, bilingual dictionaries and other useful and
creative reference materials is the fourth component to a successful EL program. For students to
succeed in attaining skillful use of their secondary language they must be immersed in said
language through a variety of media which are both functional and appealing to their particular
multiple intelligences. Having a daily scheduled time for reading aloud by the teacher
(Tompkins, 2013) provides a model for many aspects of literacy such as voice inflection,
fluency, pronunciation, etc., which the student can then apply to his/her own reading. For my
own students, I read Where the Red Fern Grows as a part of our daily schedule. Because they
audibly heard the story, they expressed greater interest in its plot and characters. They also
showed great interest in independently rereading the novel as they could then confidently
progress through the previously difficult vocabulary and language.
I am extremely grateful for what this course has revealed to me about English language
development and, more specifically, the categorizing of English language learners. In Hawaii,
where I have been teaching for the past 16 years, very few students who are born in the state are
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classified as English Learners and therefore do not receive the needed instruction or strategies to
effectively progress academically. However, according to the definition of an English Learner a
high percentage of my former students would be fall within the spectrum ranging from emergent
to bridging. Their academic shortcomings are seen as a cultural drawback and often times
attributed to a lack of parent involvement or a deficiency in the student’s intelligence. I propose
to incorporate as many EL strategies as possible into my lesson plans as I believe my students
will benefit greatly academically and intrapersonally from the implementation of these tactics
and tools.
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References
Hill, L. (2012, September 1). California's English Learner Students. . Retrieved June 2, 2014,
from http://www.ppic.org/main/publication_quick.asp?i=1031#fn-1
Commission on Teacher Credentialing. (2014, April 27). Commission on Teacher Credentialing.
Retrieved June 4, 2014, from http://www.ctc.ca.gov/credentials/onlineservices/default.html
Reyhner, J. (2008, December 3). The Reading Wars: Phonics vs. Whole Language. . Retrieved
June 2, 2014, from http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/Reading_Wars.html
Tompkins, G. (2013). Teaching and Assessing Language Arts. Language Arts: Patterns of
Practice (8th ed.,). Boston: Pearson.
Berliner, David C. (2009). Poverty and Potential: Out-of-School Factors and School Success.
Boulder and Tempe: Education and the Public Interest Center & Education Policy
Research Unit. Retrieved [date] from http://epicpolicy.org/publication/poverty-andpotential
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