Gender and Educational Achievement
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In this Presentation I shall distinguish broadly between two broad time periods: the
1950s to the late1980s and the late 1980s to the present day.
If you would like to switch directly to the slides on the late 1980s to the present day
click here.
I have made some links to my “teaching notes” on this topic which you can consult for
further details and of course you will also wish to consult your textbooks as
appropriate.
Click here for more information on the Sociology of Education.
I have now updated the statistics in this presentation to include some NEW
information on the 2014 GCSE and GCE Advanced Level examinations.
However some additional data will be published shortly by the DFE and some of this
information will be included in the presentation in the near future.
1
The Data to be explained; the 1950s to the late 1980s
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There was clear evidence that in the era of the 11+ pass marks were set
higher for girls than for boys so as to prevent girls from taking a
disproportionate share of Grammar School places as is indicated for
example in Harvey Goldstein’s findings.
From the early 1950s until the late 1960s girls were less likely than boys to
be entered for GCE Ordinary Level examinations. In any case in the 1950s
and early 1960s many pupils left school at age 15 having taken no official
national examinations.
The candidate pass rate in GCE O Level examinations was higher for girls
than for boys from the early 50s to the late 1960s so that despite the higher
entry rates for males the percentages of male and female school leavers
actually passing 5 or more GCE O levels were fairly similar although
females did usually outperform males by 1-2% each year.
This overall statistic masked the facts that girls outperformed boys by
considerable margins in Arts and Humanities subjects and that boys usually
outperformed girls but by smaller margins in Mathematics and Science
subjects.
2
The Data to be explained: the 1950s to the late 1980s
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However females were disadvantaged to some extent by their subject
choices for 16+ courses. They were less likely than males to opt for
scientific subjects [other than Biology] and also less likely to opt for
stereotypical “male” subjects such as technical drawing, woodwork and
metal work.
By the late 1970s boys and girls were equally likely to be entered for GCE
O levels. The percentages of both male and female school leavers passing
5 or more GCE O Levels rose slowly but steadily from the 1950s to the
1980s and girls remained slightly more likely than boys to pass 5 or more
GCE O Levels
However female students were less likely than males to enrol on Advanced
Level courses, less likely to achieve two or more Advanced Level passes
and less likely to participate in Higher Education from the 1950s to the
1980s.
Gender differences in subject choice were if anything greater at Advanced
Level and Degree level than at 16+ level.
3
Explanations for relative female educational under-achievement
from the 1950s to the 1980s
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Relative female educational under- achievement has been explained in
terms of several types of theory.
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IQ theories in which it is claimed that females are innately less intelligent
than males.
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Gender differences in socialisation throughout society as in the studies of ,
for example, Fiona Norman and Sue Sharpe.
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Factors operative in the schools themselves as in the theories of Michelle
Stanworth, Dale Spender and others.
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The following slides 5-11 summarise the findings of some relevant theories
and studies .
4
Explaining relative female educational under-achievement: gender
differences in IQ
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Throughout history, it has been claimed that women are less intelligent than men .It has variously been
argued that women have smaller brains than men, that they are emotional rather than rational and that
the different shapes of male and female brains give men advantages in mathematical and technical
subjects.
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Here are some links to articles related to this type of theory which you may discuss with your teachers. Click here
and here
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However it should be noted that relative to average body weight, female brains are larger than male
brains and also, that the tables have been turned to some extent by research suggesting that female
brain structures give them innately superior linguistic abilities.
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An important recent DCFS publication suggests that gender differences in educational
achievement cannot be explained in terms of gender differences in measured intelligence.
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In any case since females now out-perform males at all levels of the UK it seems foolish to suggest that
females are innately less intelligent .However many sociologists would also deny that females are
innately more intelligent than males.
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There are many limitations to IQ tests as methods of accurately measuring intelligence. Slides on the
nature and limitations of IQ theory can be found in the presentations on Class and educational
achievement and “Race”, Ethnicity and educational achievement. For convenience I repeat them here.
5
Key Elements of IQ Theory
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The IQ key theorists, Jensen, Herrnstein, Eysenck, Burt and Murray ,
focussed mainly on relationships between IQ and social class and/or
between IQ and “race”/ ethnicity rather than between IQ and gender.
The key assumptions of IQ theory are listed below.
Intelligence can be defined clearly
It can be measured accurately via IQ tests
Data have sometimes been used to suggest that women have lower IQs
than men.
However in the era of the 11+ girls were far more successful than boys in
this examination and the girl’s examination marks were adjusted downwards
to prevent girls from taking a much larger share on the available grammar
school places.
This policy was justified at the time on the grounds that girls matured more
quickly and that boys would catch up quickly once they matured. However,
many girls were actually denied the grammar school places which their
examination marks suggested they had fairly earned.
6
Some criticisms of IQ Theory
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Intelligence cannot be defined clearly or accurately measured by IQ tests.
IQ tests may be culturally biased
Some students may not be at their best when they take the tests
Others may not take the tests seriously
Student IQ test scores can improve with practice, suggesting that they do
not measure fundamental intelligence
The relative importance of genetic and environmental factors in determining
intelligence is unknown but critics of IQ theories claim that genetic factors
are unlikely to be as significant as suggested by IQ theorists
7
Gender Differences In Socialisation
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It has been suggested that in societies such as the UK the socialisation
process as it operated at least up to the 1970s meant that many parents
socialized their daughters to show dependence, obedience, conformity and
domesticity whereas boys were encouraged to be dominant, competitive
and self–reliant.
Also when young children saw their parents acting out traditional gender
roles many would perceive these roles as natural and inevitable leading
girls and boys to imagine their futures as fulltime housewives and mothers
and as fulltime paid employees respectively.
In schools teachers praised girls for "feminine qualities" and boys for
"masculine qualities"; boys and girls were encouraged to opt for traditional
male and female subjects and then for traditional male and female careers.
Furthermore in certain sections of the mass media [and especially perhaps
in teenage magazines] girls were encouraged to recognize the all
importance of finding "Mr. Right" and settling down to a life of blissful
domesticity in their traditional housewife-mother roles
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8
Gender differences in socialisation
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Fiona Norman (1988) showed that pre school socialisation may be a factor in
explaining subsequent female under achievement.
She emphasised that many parents would provide gender specific toys and
encourage male and female children to adopt different leisure activities. Children
would also be influenced by perceived differences in male and female roles within
families. At this time these gender roles were still often relatively “traditional.”
Perhaps the best known study stressing the influence of gender differences in
socialisation on subsequent educational achievement is “Just Like a Girl by Sue
Sharpe.
She argued in the 1970s that teenage girls had been socialised to focus on the
importance of romance followed by the housewife /mother role rather than on the
importance of education followed by a career.
By the early 1990s, when she repeated the research, she found girls to be more
concerned with their future career prospects. and her conclusion was supported in a
more recent [2000] study by Becky Francis.
Information on the Becky Francis study is provided later in the presentation.
9
Gender Differences in Socialisation
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Remember that the socialisation process may be analysed from different
sociological perspectives and different ideological points of view.
You should distinguish between Functionalist, Marxist, Feminist and Social Action
sociological perspectives.
Remember also the several varieties of feminism each of which provide different
approaches to the analysis of the socialisation process.
Also important are the approaches to socialisation of New Right theorists and
Postmodernists.
Remember, for example, that Functionalists would support the socialisation of males
and females into traditional so-called “instrumental and expressive gender roles, a
view that feminists would reject.
More information on socialisation in general and gender differences in socialisation in
particular will soon be provided elsewhere on the site
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10
Female relative educational under-achievement: school effects
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Studies focusing on the education system [for example in the work of Lesley Best,
Michelle Stanworth, B. Licht and C. Dweck and others] claimed that widely used
reading schemes encouraged socialisation into traditional gender roles; that teachers
gave less attention to girls; that teachers failed to rebuke boys who verbally abused
girls; that boys monopolised science equipment which restricted girls' opportunities;
that teachers had stereotypical expectations about girls' future career prospects and
that girls were lacking in confidence relative to boys. because of the ways in which
they were treated in school.
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It must be noted that these conclusions were all based upon small scale studies
which may, as a result not have been representative. The studies are now rather
dated but it is possible that female students still suffer some of these disadvantages
but are improving more rapidly than boys despite this.
It is still worthwhile for you to consult your textbooks for further information on these
studies.
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11
Improvements in Relative Female Educational Attainment:
From the 1980s onwards: Summary of the Data.[1]
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The GCSE was introduced in 1988 and from then onwards the female- male gender difference in
educational achievement at GCSE level widened as differences between the [ higher] female pass
rates and the male pass rates in Arts and Humanities widened and females narrowed or
sometimes reversed the traditional higher male pass rates in Mathematics and science subjects
For example in 2014 male entrants outperformed female entrants by 0.2% in the percentages
attaining GCSE A*-GCSE Mathematics but female entrants outperformed male entrants by 5.6%
in GCSE Science, 7.1% in History and 15.9% in English
It has been claimed that the relative improvement of female educational achievements can be
explained partly by the nature of the new GCSE courses .This has been disputed, however, on
the grounds that several factors have contributed to these trends.
By the late 1980s females were more likely than males to gain two or more Advanced Level
passes and during the course of the 1990s they also became more likely to gain 3 or more A level
passes.
Gender differences in examination performance at Advanced level are smaller than at GCSE level
but. Females also soon became more likely than males to gain A grades in almost all Advanced
Level subjects. However in recent years males have become proportionately more likely than
females to gain A* grades at Advanced level
Females are more likely than males to enrol on Undergraduate and Post Graduate courses.
Males are still marginally more likely than females to gain First Class degrees but females are
significantly more likely than males to gain Upper Second degrees.
Nevertheless there are still some significant gender differences in subject choice at Advanced
level and Degree level and these differences could potentially restrict women’s future
employment prospects.
12
From the late 1980s to the present day: Data
Summary [2]
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It is in any case necessary to consider the relative sizes of gender, social
class and ethnic differences in educational achievement and to consider the
interconnected effects of gender, ethnicity and social class on educational
achievement.
Gender differences in educational achievement are far smaller than social
class differences in educational achievement. Students of both sexes who
are eligible for free school meals are far less likely than students of both
sexes ineligible to be successful at ll levels of the education system.
Some ethnic differences in educational achievement are also greater than
gender differences in educational achievement.
Notice that females outperform males at GCSE level in all major ethnic
groups and in all social classes. Data supporting these points can be found
in my teaching notes on this topic
13
More Detailed Recent data: GCSE examinations in 2008-14
[1]
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English , Mathematics and Sciences are compulsory GCSE subjects
although not all students who enrol for these subjects will
necessarily be entered for the GCSE examinations . Boys and girls
are almost equally likely to be entered for these subject
examinations although there are very small gender differences [in
favour of boys] in entry rates for individual science subjects.
In the most popular GCSE subjects gender differences in subject
choice are generally small
There are substantial male percentage subject entrant majorities in
Economics, PE , Business Studies
There are substantial female percentage subject entrants in Art and
Design, Drama , Health and Social Care and Performing Arts.
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More Detailed Recent Data [2] GCSE
Examinations 2008-2014
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Girls, even in the late 1960s were more likely than boys to gain 5 or more GCE Ordinary Level pass grades. From
the 1960s to the 1980s the percentages of girls and boys gaining 5 or more GCE Ordinary Level pass grades
gradually increased but the so-called "gender gap" in educational attainment increased especially once the GCSE
was introduced primarily because girls have maintained their traditional higher attainment levels in Arts and
Humanities subjects but also reduced [and in some years overturned] the traditional attainment gaps in favour of
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boys in Mathematics and Science subjects
In 2014 5..6% more female entrants than male entrants achieved A*-C GGCSE pass grades in Science but 0.2%
more male entrants than female entrants achieved A*-C pass grades in Mathematics
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In 2013 55.6% of boys and 65.7% of girls achieved achieved 5 or more GCSE Grade A*-C passes; including
English and Maths. [Also including accredited IGCSES]
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The gender difference in examination success varies considerably from subject to subject. For example girls in
2014 females outperformed males in terms of attainment of 5 or more GCSE A*-C pass grades by 15.9% in
English, 18.6 in Design and Technology, 9% in Modern Foreign Languages, 17% in Art and Design and 145.0% in
English Literature
In 2014 73.1% of females entries were awarded A*-C grades compared with 64.3% of male entries
8.1% of female entries compared with 5.2% of male entries were awarded A* grades
16.7% of female entries compared with 12.4% of male entries were awarded A Grades.
Click here for further information on Gender Differences in GCSE Subject Choice and Examination Results
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More Detailed Recent Data [3]: GCE Advanced Level
Results 2014
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With regard to these 2014 GCE Advanced level results
the key points are:
There were 379,823 Male entries and 4453,984 Female
entries .
A*-E Pass Rates: 98.0% [all entrants]; 98.4% [F]; 97.4%
[M]
A* Pass Rates:8.2% [all entrants]; 7.9%[F]; 8.5%[ M]
A Pass Rates: 17.8%[all entrants]; 18.3% [F]; 17.2% [M].
In 2012 the Female A* Pass Rate was lower than the
Male A* Pass Rate for the first time since the A* Grade
was introduced this continued in 2013 and 2014
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Recent GCSE and GCE Advanced Level Data 2012-2014
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For further information :
Click here for my document entitled Gender and Subject
Choice.
There you will find links to full examination data from the
Joint Council for Qualifications and media coverage from
the BBC and Guardian on the 2012, 2013 and 2014
GCSE and GCE Advanced level examinations.
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Recent Data: some useful further links [1]
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Click here for my document on Gender and Educational Achievement where
recent data on Gender, Free School Meal Eligibility and GCSE Examination
Attainment are available
There are significant gender differences in educational achievement
between females eligible and ineligible for free school meals although it can
also be shown that these differences are greater for white students than for
students from other ethnic groups. Click here for my document on Ethnicity
and Educational attainment for further information.
Data in the above mentioned documents are taken from the DFE and you
may click here for full revised DFE GCSE examination statistics for years
2007-8 to 2012/13. The Statistical First Release provides very useful
information and even more detail is provided in the accompanying
EXCELTables. .
In each case it is vital to remember that social class differences in
educational achievement and some ethnic differences in educational
achievement are greater than gender differences in educational
achievement
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Recent Data: Some Further Useful Links [2]: Some useful
Key Stage Results
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In all of my documents on Gender and Educational Achievement I have concentrated
only on educational achievement at GCSE level and beyond
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However students may also use Key Stage 1, 2 and 3 data to assess whether and to
what extent gender differences in educational achievement are apparent at an early
age.
Use the following links to access this data
Recent Key Stage One Results
Recent Key Stage Two Results
Recent Key Stage Two and Three Results
Guardian item on Key Stage Two Results 2007-2013
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Females’ relative educational improvement from the 1980s onwards
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Click here and follow the subsequent relevant link for more detailed information from
my teaching notes
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In order to analyse the relative educational improvement from the 1980s onwards we
must distinguish between factors accelerating the rate of female improvement and
factors restricting the rate of male improvement.
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Females’ and males’ educational achievements have improved but the rate of female
improvement has been faster and this widened the female-male achievement gap
especially at GCSE level.
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Remember, however, that gender, social class and ethnicity are interconnected. Girls
are more successful than boys in all ethnic groups but middle class boys are still
more educationally successful than working class girls in all ethnic groups.
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Gender differences in educational achievement are smaller than social class
differences in educational achievement and some ethnic differences in educational
achievement.
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Possible factors explaining females’ increased
educational achievements [1]
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As the relative rate of female educational improvement increased it came to be
argued that this might be explained to some extent by biological factors.
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Experiments investigating the brain activities of male and female babies suggested
that differences in the structures of female and male brains respectively may mean
that females have genetically determined linguistic advantages which would explain
females especial facility with language based subjects.
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It was also suggested that girls’ earlier maturity means that they can concentrate
more effectively and are better organised especially in relation to course work.
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This was considered to be a significant point because the relative improvement in
female GCSE results was associated especially with the introduction of courseworkbased assessments which had been absent from the GCE Ordinary Level
examinations which the GCSE replaced.
However in relation to these theories it should be noted that male-female differences
in Advanced level language examination results are small, that the relationships
between physical and intellectual maturity are uncertain and that gender differences
in examination results cannot be explained only by the presence or absence of
coursework.
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Possible factors explaining females’ increased educational
achievements [2]
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It has been argued that in may families girls have traditionally been socialised to be relatively
quiet, obedient and passive and to see their futures more in terms of marriage and motherhood
rather than in terms of full time employment careers.
However more parents nowadays are anxious to encourage both their sons and their daughters
with reading and other study activities thereby reducing any relative female disadvantage.
Furthermore since young children are most often taught to read by mainly female first school
teachers and by their mothers this may have led children to believe that reading was primarily a
“feminine” activity which may discourage some boys from engaging with it.
This may occur especially in cases where mainly fathers are especially keen to encourage their
sons sporting and other more active “masculine “ leisure activities.
Therefore not all gender differences in socialisation operate to the disadvantage of female
students since they may also be encouraged through socialisation to take more interest in reading
and thinking about personal issues. This may have been especially helpful for English, MFL and
Humanities :exactly the subjects in which female improvement has been fastest at GCSE level .
However we must remember that girls have always been taught to read mainly by female teachers
and by their mothers and so this factor does not on its own explain recent female relative
educational improvement.
There have also been important changes in the occupational structures of advanced industrial
countries and in the nature of family life that have had a major impact on female attitudes to
education.
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Possible factors explaining females’ increased educational
achievements. [3]
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Several factors combined in the post-2nd World War period to increase the availability of service
industry and light manufacturing employment deemed especially suitable for women. More
married women took up paid employment.
Many more married women found employment in secretarial and shop work and in light
manufacturing.
A small minority of married women were employed in high status occupations; a larger minority
were employed in nursing, teaching [especially in First and Middle schools] and in social work.
These were the so-called caring professions deemed especially suitable for women since the
skills necessary appeared loosely related to the skills traditionally used by women in their roles as
housewives and mothers.
This increased employment of married women meant that they now provided less traditional role
models for their daughters who would now increasingly expect to remain in employment after
marriage. However career opportunities for women were still limited and this may have still have
discouraged girls from focussing seriously on their education.
However the availability of professional employment opportunities was gradually to increase for
example as a result of the expansion of the Welfare State and the financial sector of the economy
which gradually tended to alter female attitudes towards education and future careers.
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Possible factors explaining females’ increasing
educational achievements [3]
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The increased employment of married women was one factor which was
said to have encouraged a shift from asymmetrical to symmetrical family
forms.
Although the extent of such changes should not be overstated it is certainly
possible that in more symmetrical families girls were less likely to be
socialised to accept that their futures would automatically be as full-time
housewives and mothers rather than as paid employees.
In the 1950s and 1960s there may well have been significant social class
differences in gender socialisation. Many middle class parents encouraged
the daughters to pursue their education seriously even in the 1950s
whereas working class parents were less likely to do so.
However it is likely that by the 1980s working class parents also became
increasingly likely to encourage their daughters to prioritise their education.
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Possible factors explaining female students’ increased
educational achievements [4]
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The effects of changes in family organisation and parental attitudes were
complemented by changing attitudes within the education system itself.
Feminists ,and teachers influenced by Feminism, emphasised the
importance of women’s rights in family ,school and work place.
Some female students were influenced by these ideas, especially perhaps
by the Liberal Feminist version of Feminism.
Therefore more female students decided that they might want good careers
in the future instead of or as well as marriage.
They recognised that if they were well educated and in well paid careers
this would significantly improve potential family living standards if and when
they did marry.
Some recognised the possible inaccuracy of the romanticised view of
married life and may also have noted that the increase in the divorce
statistics suggested the possibility that they might need to support
themselves and children financially after divorce.
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Possible factors explaining female students’ increased educational
achievements [5]
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The conclusions of the earlier sociological studies of female educational disadvantage now
led feminists and other educational reformers to propose educational reforms that would
remove gender discrimination within the education.
Significant reforms were introduced.
1.
2.
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More emphasis was placed on equal opportunities issues in teacher training courses ,
schools, and school inspections.
Better teaching resources were developed which aimed at avoidance of gender
stereotyping;
Under the terms of the National Curriculum introduced in 1988 GCSE Science was
made compulsory for all students as a result of which more female students entered for
and gained A*-C grades in GCSE Science examinations.
Academics and teachers combined to form GIST [Girls into Science and Technology]
and WISE [Women into Science and Engineering] was set up by the Equal
Opportunities Commission and the Engineering Council. These organisations aimed to
produce more “girl friendly” Science teaching resources and to broaden female career
horizons.
Careers advice for female students began to improve
The greater emphasis on examination results and the introduction of league tables
made it increasingly necessary for schools to maximise both boys’ and girls’
examination results as a means of safeguarding/improving league table performance.
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Possible factors explaining female students’ increased
educational achievements [5B] : GIST
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The effectiveness of GIST and WISE should not be overstated
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In the GIST programme[1979-1983] researchers worked in 10 co-educational
comprehensive schools to try to raise teacher awareness of equal opportunities
issues and to encourage more girls to opt for Sciences at GCE and CSE levels.
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The final report concluded that the initiative had improved girls' attitudes to
Science and Technology only slightly.
Girls' enrolments in GCE and CSE Science increased only slightly.
Teachers , although sympathetic to the programme said that they had not
modified their teaching practices substantially as a result.
However the GIST initiative could be regarded as an early pilot programme
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which has encouraged many subsequent equal opportunities initiatives
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Possible factors explaining female students’ increased
educational achievements [5C] : WISE
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The WISE programme was set up as a national initiative by the Equal
Opportunities Commission and the Engineering Council in 1984 and was
designed to raise awareness of the need for more female scientists and
technologists and to emphasise the attractiveness for girls, young women
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and older women seeking to retrain of careers in Science and Technology
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WISE is still in operation and its website points out that whereas about 20
years ago only 4% of Engineering undergraduates were women the figure
for 2009 was 13%.
Obviously WISE itself may well have contributed to this increase at least to
some extent
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Possible Factors Explaining Females’ Relatively Rapid Educational
Improvement: Becky Francis’ Study : Boys, Girls and Achievement:
Addressing the Classroom Issues [2000]
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The findings of Becky Francis in this study encapsulate many of the above
points .
She argues that in so far as girls are improving more rapidly than boys , this
is to be explained primarily in terms of the processes affecting the social
construction of femininity and masculinity. In relation to the social
construction of femininity, she argues that many girls of middle school and
secondary school age aim to construct feminine identities which emphasise
the importance of maturity and a relatively quiet and orderly approach to
school life.
Girls certainly do take considerable interest in their appearance and may
choose to rebel quietly by talking at the back of the class or feigning lack of
interest but , according to Becky Francis, not in a way which will detract
from their school studies. Their femininity is constructed in such a way that if
they choose to behave sensibly and work hard this, if anything, adds to their
femininity.
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Becky Francis [2]
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No evidence is found to the effect that girls nowadays worry that
evidence of intelligence and hard work may render them
unattractive to boys and attitudes within female friendship
groups are likely to strengthen rather than undermine girls'
commitment to their school work. although ,admittedly , however,
girls do not wish to be perceived as "nerds", interested in school
work and nothing else. Increasingly also by comparison , say
with the girls interviewed by Sue Sharpe in the first edition of
"Just Like a Girl" teenage girls nowadays have gradually come to
prioritise the importance of gaining good academic qualifications
as a means of improving their own career prospects rather than
assuming that their future employment is likely to be of
secondary importance by comparison with their likely future roles
as housewives and mothers.
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Becky Francis: [3]
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Thus the girls in Becky Francis sample express interest in a relatively wide
variety of careers; are relatively unlikely to favour stereotypical female
careers such as nurse, clerical worker or air hostess ; are quite likely to
express interest in careers usually associated with men and very likely to
express interest in careers for which further education, higher education and
a degree will be necessary. However broadly traditional patterns of career
choice do remain in that the girls are more likely to choose careers
associated with the Humanities or the caring professions than with Science,
Mathematics or Engineering. Also very importantly the girls believe strongly
that they are likely to face gender discrimination in employment and Becky
Francis sees this as a major reason why girls are increasingly keen to work
hard to achieve good educational qualifications
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Explaining the relatively slow rate of male educational
improvement :1
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For more detailed information click here and then on the relevant
subsequent link.
Continued existence of laddish, macho anti- school subculture.
Boys may sometimes overestimate their abilities and consequently
make limited progress.
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Male socialisation process inhibits development of linguistic and
interpretive skills.
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Change in occupational structure and the decline of manufacturing
industry has demoralised some boys whose preferred work choices
disappear which may encourage misbehaviour in school.
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Misbehaviour leads to poor concentration and possible exclusion
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Explaining the slower rate of male educational
improvement : 2
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Possibility that teachers don’t do enough to discourage laddish culture
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Negative teacher labelling of boys
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Emphasis on poor boys’ results discourages some boys even more.
However many boys [especially but not only middle class boys] are academically
ambitious and many others now recognise the greater importance of educational
qualifications as a means of securing steady employment
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Possibility of exaggerated moral panic over boys’ examination results linked to the
development of a UK Underclass.
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Backlash type arguments; claims that schools have overemphasised relative female
educational disadvantage to the detriment of male students. Educational reform
should now give greater priority to boys’ educational difficulties.
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Slower Male Educational Improvement 3: Moral
Panic, Underclass and Backlash Arguments



Issues around the concepts of moral panic and underclass are complex. For
some further information click here and then on the subsequent relevant
link.
The relative improvement in female educational achievement especially at
GCSE level was presented in some sections of the mass media in ways
which intensified the so-called “Moral Panic” which developed in the 1980s
surrounding the growth of a so-called underclass of unemployed, criminally
inclined and welfare dependent individuals who because of their feckless
behaviour should be seen as part of the “undeserving poor” to use rather
older terminology.
In conservative versions of the underclass theory as expounded primarily by
Charles Murray it is argued that the development of the underclass can best
be held back by denial or reduction of social security payments which will
force these people to stand on their own two feet etc.
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An Underclass? [2]

The argument that an increasing proportion of schoolboys make little effort in school
to improve their own prospects lends support to the underclass theory.

Furthermore the underclass theory lends support to New Right ideas that it is
desirable in any case to restrict the scope of the welfare state so that, for example,
taxation can be reduced.


Some theorists argue, therefore, that the whole issue of boys’ educational difficulties
has been exaggerated to act as a support for New Right ideology.
Nevertheless there are also structural versions of the Underclass theory which are
not linked to New Right ideology and one can analyse relative male educational
underachievement without linking it in any way to theories of the underclass.

You may wish to investigate further the concepts of “moral panic” and “underclass”
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Slower Male Educational Improvement : ”Backlash”
Arguments




Writers such as Susan Faludi suggested that there was evidence in the
mass media of a growing anti-feminist “backlash” in which it was argued
that anti-discrimination and equal opportunities had now gone so far that it
was now males who were more likely than females to experience
discrimination.
In relation to education it was argued that specifically female friendly
education policies had become one of the prime causes of male relative
educational underachievement.
Against this Susan Faludi herself argues that women clearly continue to
face various forms of gender discrimination .
With regard to education critics of the “backlash” approach argue that much
more credible explanations for gender differences in educational
.

achievement can be found
For more information click here and then on the subsequent relevant link for
more information on backlash arguments.
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Gender Differences in Educational Achievement: Conclusion






Since the late 1980s relative female educational achievement has increased at all
levels of the educational system such that they now out-perform males at GCSE and
GCE Advanced levels and are more likely than males to enrol on undergraduate and
post graduate courses.
Their relative improvement can be found in factors operative in the family and wider
society and in the schools themselves.
Nevertheless may mainly working class females are still relatively unsuccessful in the
education system such that class [and some ethnic] differences in educational
achievement are greater than gender differences in educational achievement.
The slower rate of relative male educational underachievement may be explained in
terms of the ongoing extent of “laddish” behaviour and the difficulty that some boys
appear to face in coming to terms with the subject matter of some Humanities
subjects although neither of these arguments apply to all boys.
You should also familiarise yourselves with the relevance of the concepts of moral
panic and the underclass and with so-called “backlash arguments for the analysis of
this topic.
Good luck!
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