5 Marks
1. Learning vs Acqusition
Two modes of L2 learning according to Stephen Krashen – subconscious language
acquisition and conscious language learning – acquisition process very similar to what
children undergo to acquire their first language – requires natural communication – learning
refers to “conscious knowledge of a second language, knowing the rules, being aware of
them, and being able to talk about them” – it is ‘knowledge about’ a language, about
language rules – according to Krashen ‘learning’ is less important than ‘acquisition’
2. The status of English in India/ English as a link language/ English as a national language
in India
Indian Constitution recognizes 22 regional languages for official purposes but India has two
national languages for administrative purposes, Hindi and English – English is an associate
official language – one of the three languages in the ‘Three Language Formula’ - English
established with the East India Company in 1660 – serves two purposes: a linguistic tool for
administrative cohesiveness, and as language of wider communication – serves as both
national and international link language – has special national status due to special place in
parliament, judiciary, journalism, education and in business and commerce – has become a
language with increasing importance.
3. The three language formula
Came into existence due to reaction against Hindi becoming the official language from nonHindi states – a conference of Chief Ministers and Education ministers suggested the TLF as
a compromise in 1949 for teaching minority language/ mother tongue – spelt out in the
National Policy Resolution (1968) and reiterated in the National Policy on Education (1986)
– Hindi, English and a modern Indian language (preferably from the Southern states) in Hindi
speaking states and Hindi, English and a regional language in a non-Hindi state – created
difficulties for Urdu speakers as their children denied right of mother tongue instruction –
Gujral committee offered a modified form - in Hindi-speaking states: Hindi (with Sanskrit),
Urdu or any modern Indian language and English – in non-Hindi speaking states: regional
language, Hindi, Urdu or any other modern Indian language, and English or any other
European language – in Andhra the policy in vogue for Urdu speakers: Hindi and Urdu
(composite course), regional language and English/ any modern European language – student
must be able to study mother tongue and official language of the state.
4. L1 interference while learning English as L2
Mother tongue, especially an Indian/ Dravidian language interferes with L2 learning –
different phonological, morphological, and semantic structures – spelling and pronunciation a
problem because English not a phonetic language like Malayalam – mutually exclusive
sounds in Malayalam and English – grammatical features like tense, articles and prepositions
different – lack of semantic match between words in the two languages – (additional marks
to be given for examples)
5. Proficiency in the mother tongue can often help in learning a second language. How?
L1 is often and aid in learning L2 - Understanding how L1 is acquired can help us ‘acquire’ a
second language – speaking well in L1 can lead to speaking well in L2 as the student already
has the ability to gather and arrange ideas and to articulate them in the best possible way in an
uninhibited, confident manner – a strong reading habit in L1 can lead to a strong reading
habit in L2 thereby improving vocabulary and structure naturally which can lead to better
writing skills – the main problem with writing in L2 is lack of ideas and organization skills- if
ideas and organizational skills in L1 are good this can help in L2 writing – a student with the
ability to construct grammatically well-constructed sentences in L1 can compare and contrast
the structures of L1 and L2 and move to L2 proficiency through translation.
6. Bilingualism/ Multilingualism
Multilingualism act of using multiple languages by an individual speaker or community of
speakers – if only two languages used it is bilingualism – becoming a common social
phenomenon due to globalization and cultural openness – difficulty in qualifying a person as
multilingual – is native proficiency needed in all languages or foreign language proficiency
sufficient? – learning/ acquiring of second/ foreign language affected by relative status of the
different languages (attitude to English different in India and France), the cultural attitude to
different languages (English as a language of the colonizer and so to be resisted), the extent
to which second or more languages can be used in a culture/ society, etc.
7. Co-ordinate and compound bilingualism
Bilingualism the ability to use two languages by an individual speaker or community of
speakers – language policy favours bilingualism – in co-ordinate bilingualism two languages
operate independently of each other – speaker not necessarily able to translate between
languages – user has learned two languages in separate functional contexts (eg L1 at home
and L2 with friends for a second generation diasporic Indian) - compound bilingualism
involves highly efficient, often unconscious, translation between two languages when using
both (eg L2 at school) – two extreme modes and difficult to classify a bilingual as one of the
two, but a useful distinction.
8. Learner factors
Certain crucial factors influencing learning which are beyond the control of learner – both
intrinsic and extrinsic – intrinsic are age (children with sound first language literacy learn a
second language easier than adult learners), personality (extroverts are quicker learners than
introverts), motivation (intrinsic motivation, of academic achievement and extrinsic, of
wanting to get a job), experience (greater experience of different cultures and languages helps
language learning), cognitive (possible higher language learning ability in some individuals),
and native language (learning a language in the same language family easier) – extrinsic are
the nature of the curriculum, the quality of instruction, relative cultural status of L1 and L2,
motivation of parents and teachers, and access to native speakers.
9. Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics attempts to relate language systematically to society and culture – evolved of
knowledge in anthropology, sociology, social psychology, and linguistics – had three main
directions according to Sterne – 1: movement from general linguistics to study of language in
society – 2: Movement from linguistic competence to communicative competence – 3: a
study of speech communities – enabled language teachers to relate language teaching to
social aspects of language use
10. Ethnography of communication
Defined as “the study of the individual’s communicative activity in its social setting” (Sterne)
– an attempt to explain speech events in their social settings in terms of the constitutive
elements of the speech act and the functions of the speech act – constitutive elements of the
speech act are participants, message, medium, situation, topic, speech variety – functions:
expressive, phatic, instrumental, performative, poetic metalingual.
11. The Whorf-Sapir hypothesis
Also called the Whorfian hypothesis or theory of linguistic relativity or the linguistic
Weltanschaung (world-view) problem – a concept in anthropology – argues that a language
determines one’s thought and world view – according to Whorf language organizes
experiences – eg. We perceive the rainbow as having seven colours because of language and
ignore the real infinite shades of colour – however general consensus on theory of linguistic
relativity is that languages reflect than create socio-cultural values and orientations
12. Communicative competence
Terms in sociolinguistics for a speaker’s underlying knowledge of the rules of grammar and
for their use in socially appropriate circumstances – term coined by Dell Hymes – underlies
communicative approach to second language teaching – elaborated by Canale and Swain to
include grammatical competence (rules of grammar), sociolinguistic competence
(appropriateness), strategic competence (communicative strategies) and discourse
competence (providing cohesion and coherence) – now generally accepted that
communicative competence more important than linguistic competence.
13. Society, Culture and Language and their inter-relationship in language learning
One cannot teach a language long “without coming face to face with social context factors
which have bearing on language and language learning” (Sterne) - one needs to understand
the relationship between society, culture and language - what interests the language teacher
are sociology, ethnology, ethnography, social and cultural anthropology and sociolinguistics both sociologists and anthropologists, have always been aware of language as an essential
factor in social life - Malinowski and Firth, Sapir and Whorf, understood the relationship
between language and culture - thus society, culture and language are closely interrelated the insights into language use provided by sociology and anthropology are extremely
important for language pedagogy - The language learner should not only study the cultural
context (‘language AND culture), but that s/he should be aware of the interactions between
language and culture (‘language IN culture’ and ‘culture IN language’).
14. Selection and grading
Key phrases in Mackey’s ‘method analysis’ and Halliday’s ‘methodics’ – selection of
linguistic items according to purpose, length and level of language course – determined by
frequency, range, usefulness, availability, coverage, applicability, learnabilty etc – end result
an inventory of phonological, grammatical, lexical, and semantic items for a syllabus/
textbook – gradation deals with how the selected items are to be taught – Mackey
distinguishes ‘grouping’ ( fitting together of items that go together) and ‘sequencing’ (the
order to be followed) – usually graded from known to unknown, easy to difficult, simple to
complex, concrete to abstract, etc.
15. The Situational approach in ELT
Functional approach to language of Firth and Halliday led to situational approach in ELT –
the accepted British approach in the 1950s – based on the behaviourist theory of habit
formation – aim was the formation of correct speaking habits through imitative drills –
adopted inductive method for teaching grammar – grammatical explanation discouraged and
meaning deduced from situations
16. Methods of teaching prose
Main aims: intensive reading and development of intellect – main steps in teaching prose –
preparation by the teacher, selection of AV aids, testing of previous knowledge of students,
introduction, statement of aim, presentation which includes model reading, explanation of
vocabulary, silent reading, testing of comprehension and grammatical structures,
recapitulation and assignment.
17. The deductive and inductive methods of teaching grammar
Deductive method states rules and gives examples – students asked to apply rules to exercise
– eg the rules for changing active to passive given – interchange of subject of object,
passivization of verb, addition of by phrase – students apply rules to sentence – in inductive
method students are giver samples of language use with a particular structure and are asked to
deduce the structure and function of a particular construction – sentences in passive and
active are given, student asked to identify the structural changes, think about the different
situation in which these structures occur and then asked to create sentence with appropriate
structure and function – deductive method more behaviourist, inductive more cognitive
18. Problems of teaching proposition to Malayalam users
Mastery of prepositions need significant proficiency in English – difficult to be taught –
errors in the usage of propositions due to the L1 interference, the tendency to think in
Malayalam and communicate in English, lack of listening and reading habits, lack of
exposure to variety of texts in English – also due to the difference is structure between
English and Malayalam – methods to improve usage prepositions: develop intense listening
and reading habits, work through grammar exercises on prepositions.
19. Skimming and scanning
Skimming – method of quick information gathering – eye skims through text to gather
essential content - advantages: helps in identifying relevant topics, to gain an overview of the
information, time saving reading – eg reading to indentify interesting articles in the
newspaper – scanning is reading text to identify specific information – eg looking up a word
in the dictionary – are two modes of reading to be taught along with intensive and extensive
reading
20. Intensive and extensive reading
Intensive reading is reading for through comprehension – can only be silent reading as the
purpose is not to improve pronunciation – it is in-depth reading and involve comprehension,
learning of vocabulary and structure – sincere effort and hard work needed – needed for text
book reading – an integral part of the reading for education/ reading in higher education/
library reading – extensive reading is mainly for pleasure – improves speed reading –
develops interest in the language – helps to gather knowledge from a wide variety of sources
–develops general language competence and general knowledge
21. Differentiate between guided and free composition
Two methods of teaching writing – the first for beginners and the second for more advance
learners – in guided composition student given help by way of structures and vocabulary
items – students have to stay within the given language items – egs using substitution tables
to form sentences, filling in words in a paragraph, arranging jumbled sentences, expanding an
outline, etc depending on the level of the learner – free composition offers learners freedom
to choose vocabulary and structures – paragraph writing, letter writing, story writing, essay
writing, précis, reports, book reviews, creative writing etc – needs higher order skills like
organizing ideas into a sequence of sentences and paragraphing – appropriate for learners
after guided composition
22. Audio-visual aids in teaching
A-V aids involve sense of sound and vision – provide vital pedagogic support – advantages:
1) motivates students, 2) provides clarifications to concepts taught, 3) encourages
understanding and discourages cramming, 4) time saving, 5) Makes classroom live and
active, avoids monotony, 6) provides direct learning experience, etc – disadvantages: 1)
expensive, 2) needs teacher expertise in handling equipment, 3) can disturb nearby classes etc
– advantages far outweigh disadvantages
23. Remedial teaching
Mode of teaching aimed at correcting errors or addressing gaps in knowledge – remedial
teaching comes after teaching and evaluation – in ELT proper diagnostic tests can identify the
major errors/ problems faced by learners in each language skill – stages of diagnostic tests:
identifying students who need help, locating the error/ learning difficulties and discovering
the causal factors - the test results and errors have to be analysed and classified carefully to
create a syllabus for remedial teaching – error analysis also identifies slow learners, helps
them identify their problems and overcome it – basic drawbacks of remedial teaching: student
gets disheartened to be tagged as slow learner – focus is usually on writing skills and other
language skills are rarely evaluated
24. Error analysis
Studies the types and causes of language errors – established in SLA by Pit Corder in the
1960s – EA distinguishes between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not
– errors a result of ignorance, mistakes of stress – errors have patterns, mistakes do not –
errors cannot be rectified by learner, mistakes can – errors come of ignorance of rules – errors
are classified according to modality (level of proficiency in the language skills), linguistic
level (pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, style), form (omission, insertion, substitution),
type ( systematic errors/ errors in competence vs occasional errors/ errors in performance),
cause (interference, interlanguage) – steps in EA: collecting samples of learner language,
identifying, describing, explaining, and evaluating/ correcting the errors – methodological
problems: difficult to determine kind of error from language sample, can deal only with
learner production (speaking and writing) and not reception (listening and reading) –
currently more wide-ranging approach to learner error called interlanguage – error analysis an
integral part of evaluation and provides the framework for remedial teaching by identifying
the relevant teaching points,
25. Enumerate and briefly explain the qualities of a good test
The main qualities of a good test are: Objectivity, Comprehensiveness, Validity, Reliability,
Discriminating power, Practicability, and Simplicity –a test is said to be objective if it is free
from personal biases – Comprehensiveness means the test should cover the whole syllabus–a
test is said to be valid if it measures what it intends to measure –Reliability of a test refers to
the degree of consistency with which it measures what it is intended to measure –
Discriminating Power is power to discriminate between the upper and lower groups who took
the test – Practicability depends on administrative ease, scoring ease, interpretative ease and
economy – Simplicity means that the test should be written in a clear, correct and simple
26. Norm referenced and Criterion referenced tests
Norm Referenced Test is a test which compares the individual’s performance with those
other persons taking the same test - Criterion Referenced Test evaluates an individual’s
performance with reference to specific instructional objectives.
NORM REFERENCED TEST
CRITERION REFERENCED TEST
The main objective to measure individual The Main objective to measure the
differences.
effectiveness of a programme or instruction.
Aims to classify and grade learners in various Provides specific information in individual
categories
level of performance with respect to
objectives
The meaning of any particular score can be The score of an individual can be interpreted
determined only by comparing it to scores of individually
other students
It is often used for selection purposes
The purpose is not comparison, but specific
learning
Test results are used for making comparative The results are used to evaluate student
decision regarding individuals
performance relative to specific objectives
It is specially constructed to maximize the The test constructor is not concerned with
variability of test scores, as the purpose is developing a test to maximize the variability
discriminating of individuals by comparison
of test scores
Essay
1. STEPHEN KRASHEN’S THEORY OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Stephen Krashen expert in linguistics focusing on theories of acquisition and development –
author of Principles and Practices in Second Language Acquisition (1987) and Second
Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning (1988) – has had wide impact in all
areas of second language teaching and research since 1980
Krashen’s theory has five main hypotheses: The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the
Monitor hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, the Input hypothesis and the Affective
Filter hypothesis – the Acquisition-Learning distinction most significant – Acquisition
subconscious, requiring meaningful interaction in target language with importance on the
communicative act than on form – learning a conscious act resulting in knowledge about
language – Monitor hypothesis defines influence of learning on acquisition – the acquisition
system is the initiator and the learning system the monitor, with planning, editing and
correcting functions – Natural Order hypothesis suggests that acquisition of grammatical
structures follows a predictable ‘natural order’ for any given language – Input hypothesis
tries to explain how L2 acquisition takes place – acquisition takes place when learner receives
‘comprehensible input’ in step beyond their current linguistic competence – Affective filters
which positively affect acquisition are variables like motivation, self-confidence and anxiety
of the learner – According to Krashen grammar teaching helps language acquisition only
when students are interested in grammar and it is taught in the target language.
2. PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE TEACHING
Teaching requires connecting theory to practice – three types of principles: cognitive,
socioaffective (emotional), linguistic – A. Cognitive Principles: 1. Automaticity – language
absorbed automatically – balance rules and practice – 2. Meaningful learning – rote-learning
does not lead to long-term retention – appeal to students’ language need and goals –
3.Anticipation of reward – reward leads to better performance – compliments, reminder of
long term goals helpful – 4. Intrinsic motivation and strategic investment – the method the
learner adopts to learn are more significant than the teachers’ methods – 5.Autonomy –
successful learners take responsibility for their learning – B. Socioaffective Principles: 1.
Language ego – learning a language can be awkward – needs teacher support – 2. 2.
Willingness to communicate – help students to become self-confident by ensuring their
success - 3. Language-culture connection – educate about cross-cultural differences and
mutual respect – C. Linguistic Principles: 1.Native language effect – mother tongue can
interfere with and facilitate learning – 2. Interlanguage – help students move toward target
language accuracy – 3. Communicative competence – includes linguistic competence,
pragmatic competence, strategic competence
3. BRIEF HISTORY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
Need of understanding of history: helps us understand the present situation and why it is so –
provides understanding of forces that shaped the profession –Classical period, 17th, 18th and
19th centuries – education was an arm of theocracy, foreign language learning associated with
the learning of Greek and Latin – purpose ‘intellectuality’ – in the 1850’s the classical
method became known as the Grammar Translation method – 1850’s to 1950’s GT method –
Early mid-20th century saw demand for ability to speak foreign language – reformers
reconsidered the nature of language and learning – 3 reformers – C. Marcel, F. Gouin and T.
Pendergast – Marcel emphasized importance of meaning in language learning, Perdergast
proposed first structural syllabus – Gouin emphasized the role of language as a means of
thinking – Series method taught learners directly (without translation) and conceptually
(without grammar rules) a series of simple connected sentences - later came Direct method
posited by Berlitz – followed by the Audiolingual method in the 1950’s – an oral-based
structural approach – then came Structural Situation approach – ALM with situational
practice – various Designer methods of the 1970’s and 80’s – Suggestopedia, Silent way, etcfollowed by humanistic methods like Community Language Teaching and Total Physical
response – in the 1980’s came interactive views of language teaching – Communicative
Language teaching and its spin-offs: Natural Approach, Co-operative language teaching,
Functional-notional approach, task-based language teaching etc.
4. THE STATUS OF ENGLISH IN INDIA
Indian Constitution recognizes 22 regional languages for official purposes but India has two
national languages for administrative purposes, Hindi and English – English is an associate
official language – one of the three languages in the ‘Three Language Formula’ - Came into
existence due to reaction against Hindi becoming the official language from non-Hindi states
– a conference of Chief Ministers and Education ministers suggested the TLF as a
compromise in 1949 for teaching minority language/ mother tongue – spelled out in the
National Policy Resolution (1968) and reiterated in the National Policy on Education (1986)
– Hindi, English and a modern Indian language (preferably from the Southern states) in Hindi
speaking states and Hindi, English and a regional language in a non-Hindi state –created
difficulties for Urdu speakers as their children denied right of mother tongue instruction –
Gujral committee offered a modified form - in Hindi-speaking states: Hindi (with Sanskrit),
Urdu or any modern Indian language and English – in non-Hindi speaking states: regional
language, Hindi, Urdu or any other modern Indian language, and English or any other
European language – in Andhra the policy in vogue for Urdu speakers: Hindi and Urdu
(composite course), regional language and English/ any modern European language – student
must be able to study mother tongue and official language of the state - English established
with the East India Company in 1660 – India has longer exposure to English than any other
country - serves two purposes: a linguistic tool for administrative cohesiveness, and as
language of wider communication – serves as both national and international link language –
has special national status due to special place in parliament, judiciary, journalism, education
and in business and commerce – has become a language with increasing importance.
5. “ENGLISH HAS BECOME ONE OF THE MAJOR LANGUAGES OF THE WORLD,
AND INDIANS CAN NEGLECT ITS STUDY AT THEIR OWN RISK”. DISCUSS
English undoubtedly a major language – importance of English can be considered under four
heads: 1. English as an international language; 2. English as a window on the world; 3.
English as a library language; 4. English as a link language – 1. English is an international
language – a second language or official language in different countries like India, Pakistan,
Africa, France, Russia etc – one of the six official languages of the U.N – link language of
Commonwealth countries – language of international politics, trade, industry, commerce,
business – has become more important with globalization and the possibility of living and
working in an international environment – 2. Nehru: “English is our major window on the
world” – give us awareness of what is happening in the rest of the world in all spheres,
cultural, intellectual, spiritual, etc- 3. English is the language of knowledge – as a library
language has a key role in higher education – implications: teachers should be bilingual
(regional language and English; students (especially PG students) should be able to follow
lectures and use reading materials in English – 4. English an international link language –
also a national link language - language of trade and industry in India - Indians neglect
English at their own risk.
6. THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH IN SCHOOLS IS FAR FROM SATISFACTORY.
INDENTIFY THE PROBLEMS AND SUGGEST REMEDIES
V.K Gokak: Teaching of English in “a chaotic state” – students are taught English for about 6
hours per week for 6 years but they “hardly know 150 words” when they come to college and
do not know “ how to use the commonest structures of English – situation might be different
in different states and between rural and urban schools but the main problems are common: 1.
Lack of clear-cut policy of how much to teach, when and how – 2. Little understanding that
the aims of English is to teach the language skills – 3. Dearth of competent, trained teachers –
4. Wrong methods of teaching with emphasis on rote learning, ad ignorance of contemporary
methods and principles of ELT – 5. Defective textbooks, without grading or selection, proper
objectives or with language situations familiar to the learners – 6. Fault system of
examination with no testing of language skills – only memory skills tested – 7. Insufficient
use of AV aids – 8. Over-crowded classes – 9. Shortage of time – 10. Unsatisfactory or nonexistent monitoring of teacher activities, etc – Solution – remedy these problems.
7. POINT OUT THE DIFFERENCES OF LEARNING THE MOTHER TONGUE AND
THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE IN SCHOOL AND IDENTIFY THE IMPLICATIONS
OF L1 ACQUISITION FOR L2 LEARNING
Differs in a number of ways – 1. L1 acquisition is a natural process with strong motivation
for learning – to express his/her needs and wants – L2 learning an artificial process with poor
student motivation – 2. L1 acquired in a natural environment while foreign language taught in
an artificial environment – only contact with L2 in the classroom – 3. Child acquires L1 in
situations and with a purpose while inadequate real-life situations for L2 learning – 4. L1
acquired with a ‘clean slate’ while L2 learning is affected by L1 interference – Implications
for L2 learning: 1. Importance of motivation and sense of achievement – 2. Importance of
providing maximum exposure to L2 in different forms – 3. Importance of situational
approach needed – 4. Importance of imitation more than rules – students should be
encouraged to acquire language naturally than learn rules about language.
8. FACTORS THAT PLAY A ROLE IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING
Some essential factors are to be taken into account while considering second language
learning – some variables or factors that are essential in second language learning – 1.
Influence of the social context or the cultural and economic factors on the motivation and
attitude of the learner – 2. Learner characteristics like age and sex, learning aptitude, general
learning abilities, learning styles – 3. Learning conditions pertaining to the learning of second
language like learning a second language through exposure to the target language – 4.
Learning process and the strategies and techniques employed by the learner – 5. Learning
outcome – the final result of competence and proficiency achieved while learning a new
language.
9. SUBSTANTIATE
APPROACHED.
THE
TWO
WAYS
IN
WHICH
LEARNING
CAN
BE
Study of learning is relevant to education – analysis of learning is a central theme of
educational psychology – learning can be approached in two ways – 1. through theoretical
and experimental studies – it was mainly carried out on animals by a group of theorists like
Watson, Hull, Thorndike, Skinner who expounded theories like Behaviourism,
Associationism, Operant conditioning – 2. through empirical studies – tries to investigate
learning problems of children with learning and emotional difficulties – based more on
observation or experience than on theory – identified learning problems – formulated
theories on meaningful learning
10. DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS GROWTH ON THE
BASIS OF THE CONTRIBUTIONS BY RENOWNED EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGISTS
Different educational psychologists covered different aspects – Huse – experimental
approach to studying foreign language – advocated research techniques for studies and
learning – Findlay – considered language learning as an imitative task – the learner has to
copy the behaviour of the native through conscious attention – Simmins – discussed the
transfer and application of what we learn to a new setting – also studied the mental process
involved in the learning a new language –Brachfeld - affective psychology – how the life
style and personality of the individual are affected during second language learning – Stengel
- emotional resistance and language difficulties in adults while learning a foreign language in
a foreign country – Carroll - theory of habitual responses where language is a system of well
learned habitual responses and memory and mimicry are involved in learning a foreign
language – Penfield – discussed the optimal age and the biological age for second language
learning - Carroll and Sapon – devised some new language aptitude tests for testing language
learning.
11. COMPARE AND CONTRAST BEHAVIOURIST AND COGNITIVE THEORIES IN
LANGUAGE LEARNING
Psychological investigations turned to questions of learning, memory, thinking, intelligence
and emotion in the beginning of the 20th century – language came to be viewed as an index of
mental growth – two main schools of the psychology of learning are the behaviourist and
cognitive/ mentalist schools – behaviourists considered language a part of human behaviour –
language is verbal behaviour and thinking is sub-vocal verbalization –main proponents were
Thorndike, Pavlov, Skinner and Watson – explained language training in terms of stimulus
and response and habit formation – main tenets: habits are strengthened by reinforcement –
language is behaviour – language skills learned more effectively through spoken form –
analogy better foundation than analysis – language learning is skill-getting and habit
formation – Cognitivists -gained strength after Chomsky’s attack of Skinner – early
representatives were the Gestalt group of psychologists in Germany ( Kohler, Koffka etc) –
Cognitivists believed that one learns a language not by conditioning but because of an inborn
capacity to acquire language in the maturation process – developed by Chomsky.
12. GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD
Grammar Translation Method is also called Classical method – one among the methods of
learning a language – a method to read and appreciate a foreign language through the study of
the native language – involved the study of the grammar of the target language – developed
familiarity with the grammar of the native language – GT method considers literary language
superior to spoken language – importance is given to the translation of matter from the native
language to a foreign language – importance to native language – priority is given to the
development of reading and writing – little importance given to speaking, listening and
pronunciation – gave supreme authority to the teacher.
13. ATTEMPT A CRITIQUE OF THE DIRECT METHOD
Direct method a method of teaching a foreign language through conversation, discussion and
reading in the language itself without use of L1, translation or the study of grammar– Aim: to
move from L2 to concept directly rather than though L1 (Grammar Translation method) –
Principles: - emphasis on speech - English taught through conversation – practice in listening
and speaking – inhibition of mother tongue to promote thinking in L2 – sentence considered
the unit of speech – inductive teaching of grammar, grammar not an end but only a means to
an end (communication) – progressive teaching of new vocabulary – features: translation, use
of L1, bilingual dictionary completely banned – grammar taught inductively – oral teaching
preceded teaching of reading and writing – use of connected sentences – systematic teaching
of pronunciation – meanings of words and forms taught by means of objects/ natural context
– vocabulary and structure inculcated by question-answer session between teacher and
student – Advantages: Natural method similar to acquiring of L1 (LSRW learnt in that order)
– promotes fluency in speech – leads to better pronunciation – aids written work as proficient
speaking leads to proficient writing – disadvantages: incomplete method with too much
emphasis on speaking – requires very efficient teachers – requires highly motivated and
linguistic minded students – AV aids unavailable in schools – ineffective in over-crowded
classrooms – sometimes not an effective or efficient method for conveying meaning.
14. COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH TO THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH
Approach to the teaching of second/ foreign language where interacting in the language is the
means and ultimate goal of language learning – CLT defined as ‘the systematic approach of
applying both the structural and functional aspects of language’ according to Littlewood, in
Aspects of Second Language Learning – developing communicative competence and
procedures for the teaching of LSRW are the objectives of CLT – developed in opposition to
the Situational approach of language teaching and late 1960s grammatical, sociolinguistic,
discourse and strategic competences according to Canale and Swain – according to David
Nunan the characteristics of CLT are the introduction of authentic texts and attempt to link
CLT with language activities outside the classroom – emphaises the primacy of speech – the
teacher is the analyst, counselor, and group process manager – instructional materials are text
based and task based – classroom activities includes role play, games, surveys, etc.
15. EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
CLT is one among the methods of communication – attaining communicative competence is
the goal of this method of language teaching – interdependence of language and
communication – the aim of studying a language is to communicate – importance is given to
students – students are given chances to express their ideas and opinions – teachers tolerate
the errors of the students – encouragement of co operation among students – role of the
teacher is that of a facilitator – importance is given to communicative activities such as
games, role play, problem solving tasks which improve their communicative skills importance to the development of all the four skills listening, speaking , reading and writing.
16. SITUATIONAL APPROACH TO LANGUAGE TEACHING
Harold Palmer and A S Hornby applied scientific methodology in applied linguistics to
develop an oral approach different from the Direct method – developed controlled vocabulary
and grammar teaching and a structure based situational approach – an oral method with
emphasis on phonetic accuracy - Firth and Halliday’s functional approach to language gave
the situational direction to the teaching of structures – syllabus created through the processes
of selection, gradation, presentation and practice –– based on behaviourist theory of habit
formation - aim was the formation of correct speaking habits through imitative drills –
followed the inductive method – grammatical explanation was discouraged and meaning
deduced from situations – accuracy in pronunciation and grammar considered crucial –
believed that automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns through practice was
the key to developing reading and writing skills - Situational Oral approach became accepted
British approach by the 1950s
17. TEACHING WITHOUT LECTURING
Lecturing one of the most common methods of teaching – often unavoidable but also least
effective way to promote learning – problems with lecturing: limited attention span for
students, does not keep them actively interested in learning, difficult to gauge the level of
learning especially in large classes, is teacher-centred – in a language class it gives student
knowledge about a language but not the ability to use language in real-life situations simplest way to engage the attention of students is through constant questioning during and
after the lecture – teaching without lecturing involves more learner-centred approaches – can
include quizzes on assigned reading topics, debates, brainstorming, project based work,
learning though teaching (peer teaching), pair work, role play, paper presentations and
discussions, etc
18. WHAT ARE THE MAIN STEPS FOR PLANNING A LESSON FOR A LANGUAGE
CLASS
Assuming that you already have a term plan and a unit plan, the first step would be to set
lesson goals – to set lesson goals one must identify: the topic for the lesson, specific linguistic
content, communicative tasks, learning strategies and create goal statements about what you
will do and students will do during a class – the next step would be to structure the lesson –
this involves five parts: preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation and expansion – the
last major step would be to identify the materials and activities for the lesson – classroom
strategy evolves out of the interrelationship between lesson plan, term plan and the unit plan.
19. RELATIVE MERITS AND DEMERITS OF THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF
TEACHING READING
Main methods: Alphabetic method, Phonic method, Word or Look and Say method, Phrase
method and Sentence method – Alphabetic method – oldest method – letter of the alphabet
taught and then combination into word – demerits: English not a phonetic language, dull and
monotonous method, single letter has more than one sound, students fail to develop reading
speed – Phonic method – students told sounds of various letters – sounds combined to form
words demerits: no reliable match between sound and letter, all words cannot be taught, letter
is the unit of reading – Word or Look and Say method – word is the unit of reading – flash
cards with pictures used for words – called Look and Say and students look at pictures and
say the word – Merits: greater reading speed as word is the unit, reading becomes interesting
as words are related to their meaning, movement from concrete to abstract – demerits: all
words cannot be represented by pictures, encourages the bad habit of reading word by word –
Phrase method – phrase is the unit of approach – demerits: phrase does not express a
complete idea, time consuming as it has to be developed into sentences – Sentence method –
merits: provides all attitudes and skills needed for good reading, helps prevent word by word
reading, encourages correct habit of eye-span, makes reading interesting – disadvantage: not
possible without knowledge of words, time consuming – story method – creates interest –
gives complete unit of thought – an eclectic method depending on the level of the learner,
situation etc, might be appropriate
20. COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE METHODS OF LOUD AND SILENT READING
Loud reading only the first stage of reading – whereas real reading is silent without lip or
head movements – reading teaching usually starts with loud reading – student reading follows
model reading by teacher – focuses on pronunciation, acquiring correct stress, rhythm and
intonation rather than comprehension – tests students’ knowledge of words and phrases and
their correct pronunciation – can help the students read with feeling – forms the basis of both
silent reading and speaking (helps the learner become familiar with the sounds of L2) – not
important when the aim of reading is to get information correctly and quickly – excessive
loud reading can become mechanical and divorced from meaning – Silent reading more
valuable in certain ways – few people will read loudly after leaving school – silent reading
keeps the whole class busy, whereas in loud reading the class is a silent listener – quicker
process than loud reading – students able to work at their own pace – students able to focus
on comprehension than pronunciation – prepares the student for independent reading –
inculcates a love for reading – only method of reading in both intensive and extensive modes
of reading – both have the place in ELT with different purposes – reading aloud is a first step
to speaking and pronunciation, while silent reading is a major skill focusing on
comprehension and speed – loud reading comes in the early stages of ELT and loud reading
later.
21. DESCRIBE THE STRATEGIES YOU WOULD ADOPT TO TEACH INTENSIVE
READING OF PROSE IN A LARGE CLASS.
Intensive reading an advanced level of reading where the learning is intensive, the
comprehension is thorough, the learner comprehends the meaning and significance of each
word and sentence and grasps the interconnectedness of the sentences, the learner learns and
assimilates new vocabulary and structure – all of this cannot happen in a one-hour session –
major strategy is silent reading – the problems when teaching intensive reading of prose to a
large class are: difficulty in ensuring uniform learning for all students, ensuring feedback
about the level of learning, distractions due to the largeness of the class, lack of motivation,
students with different ability levels, etc – loud reading to be avoided as the purpose is
thoroughness of comprehension not improving pronunciation – first step: creating rapport and
specifying the objectives of the lesson – explain reading strategy: silent reading of entire
passage for global meaning, then intensive paragraph by paragraph silent reading followed by
questions – silent reading of whole passage – questions on global meaning – teaching of
difficult words through appropriate vocabulary exercise – paragraph by paragraph silent
reading – questions to check comprehension could be oral questions, pre-reading questions to
be answered through pair work, etc – then comprehension test on whole passage with MCQs,
True-false questions, one-word or one sentence answers, etc – consolidation by writing
summary of passage or giving summary of passage in jumbled order to put into correct
sequence (pair work or group work).
22. TYPES OF TESTS
Three basic types of written tests in English – essays, short answers and objective type –
essays a traditional type – most commonly used form of question in external examinations –
used to test ability to think originally and organize ideas, to test proficiency in sentence
structure, spelling, punctuation, sequencing, paragraphing, to test the personality and metal
ability of the student – disadvantages: only a few questions can be framed and so cannot
cover the whole syllabus, subjectivity in evaluation – unless carefully constructed can lead to
unwieldy answers and a tendency to bluff – short answers – advantages: can cover the
syllabus more comprehensively, far less subjective than the essay as they demand definite
answers – disadvantage: does not test the power of expression as the essay does – objective
test – so called because of objectivity in evaluation – advantages: can include questions from
the whole syllabus, useful for measuring specific skills and items of knowledge –
disadvantages: difficult to construct (especially MCQs), unless properly framed can aid
guesswork, do not test expression only recognition and comprehension, offers greater scope
for malpractice – all have advantages and disadvantages and test different skills and have
different purposes – judicious combination of all three needed
23. QUALITIES OF A GOOD TEST
A good test should possess the qualities of Objectivity, Objective Basedness,
Comprehensiveness, Validity, Reliability, Discriminating power, Practicability, and
Simplicity – Objectivity – a test is said to be objective if it is free from personal biases in
interpreting its scope as well as in scoring the responses – can be increased by using more
objective type test items – Objective-basedness means the test should be based on predetermined objectives – the test setter should have definite ideas about the objective behind
each item – Comprehensiveness means the test should cover the whole syllabus and cover all
objectives – Validity – a test is said to be valid if it measures what it intends to measure –
different types of validity: Operational validity (when tasks in the test are sufficient to
evaluate the activities), Predictive validity (when scores can predict future performance),
Content validity (when items in the test are representative of the course content), Construct
validity (when test scores offers psychological interpretations) – Reliability of a test refers to
the degree of consistency with which it measures what it is intended to measure – a test may
be reliable but need not be valid – a test with high validity has to be reliable also – valid test
is also a reliable test, but a reliable test may not be a valid one – Discriminating Power is
power to discriminate between the upper and lower groups who took the test – the test should
contain questions of different difficulty levels – Practicability of the test depends on
administrative ease, scoring ease, interpretative ease and economy – Simplicity means that
the test should be written in a clear, correct and simple language.
24. EVALUATE THE ESSAY QUESTION, THE SHORT ANSWER QUESTION AND
THE MCQ TYPES ON THE BASIS OF THE CRITERIA OF OBJECTIVITY,
VALIDITY, RELIABILITY AND COMPREHENSIVENESS.
Objectivity, Validity, Reliability and Comprehensiveness four main qualities of a good test –
a test is said to be objective if it is free from personal biases in interpreting its scope as well
as in scoring the responses – a test is said to be valid if it measures what it intends to measure
– Reliability refers to the degree of consistency with which a test measures what it is intended
to measure – Comprehensiveness means the test should cover the whole syllabus and cover
all objectives – Essay questions have the least objectivity, a high validity only if it
specifically intends to evaluate higher level writing skills, not a great degree of reliability as
scores may vary between evaluators and only limited comprehensiveness as it cannot cover
the whole syllabus – the short answer has greater objectivity than the essay question but not
as much as the MCQ, has greater validity, reliability and comprehensiveness than the essay
question – the MCQ has the highest objectivity, its validity depends on the quality of the
MCQs and the expertise of the MCQ creator, and it has high reliability and
comprehensiveness.