Currency
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Payment of money takes place in a certain currency
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A right to performance against the issuer of money (a purely nominal claim) becomes
money when the money is accepted in commerce as means of payment (and thus as
currency).
Money issued by a state - or the state indicated banks - has ‘legal tender’ (i.e.
creditors are obliged to accept is as money);
><privately issued money may nevertheless become currency at least in a certain sphere
– e.g. virtual currencies (such as Bitcoin)
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Most states have also abolished the convertibility of the money/currency they issue
(in e.g. gold, as was traditionally the case)
Payments
currency exchange controls
Various national restrictions on currency exchange for:
- the protection of the currency
- statistical purposes
- combat financing of crime (esp. CFT, to counter financing of terrorism) and money
laundering (AML, anti-money laundering)
(apart from exchange restrictions, there may be other restrictions on money transfers,
incl. freezing of assets as part of international sanctions)
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IMF (188 countries, 2012)
Main purposes:
Exchange rate stability
Liberalization of payments and transfers for current transactions
‘Surveillance’: oversee the international monetary and financial system and monitor
economic and financial policy of member states (incl. Standards for dissemination of
financial and economic data by member states)
Member states limit their monetary sovereignty in exchange for benefits of
membership
Quota (subscription) of each member is based on its size in the world economy
IMF Agreement &
currency exchange controls
art. VIII (2) (a) IMF-Agreement:
in principle (i.e. unless approved by the IMF) prohibition of restrictions
on international payments and transfers for current transactions.
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This implies the following obligations for member states:
- allow citizens to pay current transactions with national currency or
to purchase foreign currency for such payments
- allow non-citizens having received payment in national currency to
use it for payment of current transactions
- where necessary for current transactions, exchange national
currency held by another state for foreign currency or SDR
Does not affect restrictions on capital movements (v. free movement of capital
in the EU)
IMF-Agreement &
currency exchange controls
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Restrictions compatible with Art. VIII IMF:
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No current transaction (transfers of capital);
or
Approval by the IMF (only if necessary and temporary)
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art. VII (3)(b) scarcity;
transitional rule for existing restrictions in XIV (2)).
IMF-Agreement &
currency exchange controls
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Effects: art. VIII (2) (b):
where *the restriction is consistent with the IMF Agreement,
*exchange contracts *involving the currency of a member state and
*contrary to its excange control regulations are *unenforceable in
all IMF Member States.
> A priority rule irrespective of the applicable lex contractus
Cfr. art. 9, 3 Rome-I-R.: “Effect may be given to the overriding mandatory
provisions of the law of the country where the obligations arising out of the
contract have to be or have been performed, in so far as those overriding
mandatory provisions render the performance of the contract unlawful.”
IMF-Agreement &
currency exchange controls
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art. VIII (b): where *the restriction is consistent with the IMF
Agreement, *exchange contracts *involving the currency of a
member state and *contrary to its regulations are *unenforceable in
all IMF Member States.
* Questions of interpretation of the terms:
- exchange contract: restrictive interpretation in UK & US – only a
monetary deal in currencies; other countries use a wider
interpretation. Countertrade is never an exchange contract.
- involving the currency: restrictive v. wide interpretation
- exchange control regulations: not regulations with a different
purpose
- compatibility: opinion of the IMF should be asked
- unenforceable; effect upon the contract depends on contract law.
international law &
currency exchange controls
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Currency exchange restrictions imposed by international law:
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in case of economic sanctions decided by the UN Security Council
including sanctions against terrorists and terrorist organisations.
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money of account/of payment
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Money of account = currency used to express the price
> price goes up and down with the money of account, but nominally
unchanged – principle of « nominalism »
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According to contract law, debtor may always pay in the currency of
account
Several reasons why payment could be made in a different
currency: next slide
Money of account/of payment
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Several reasons why payment could be made in a different
currency, i.e. the payment currency (being the currency of the place
of payment):
If payment in foreign currency is prohibited at that place (exchange
controls);
If according to local law the debtor is entitled to pay in local
currency and prefers to do so (local payment rule); local currency
can be excluded by an « effectivo »-clause (see infra 6.1.9 (1) (b))
Courts normally render judgments in local currency only
Compare art. 6.1.9. Unidroit PICC:
(1) If a monetary obligation is expressed in a currency other than that of the place
for payment, it may be paid by the obligor in the currency of the place for payment
unless (a) that currency is not freely convertible; or (b) the parties have agreed that
payment should be made only in the currency in which the monetary obligation is
expressed.
(2) If it is impossible for the obligor to make payment in the currency in which the
monetary obligation is expressed, the obligee may require payment in the currency of
the place for payment, even in the case referred to in paragraph (1)(b).
Money of account /of payment
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When payment currency ≠ account currency > issue of (date and
place of) conversion
Contract may contain rules for conversion (determine date and
place)
National law varies in respect of date of conversion: payment date
v. breach date v. conversion at breach date plus additional damage
for depreciation
UPICC 6.1.9.:
(3) Payment in the currency of the place for payment is to be made
according to the applicable rate of exchange prevailing there when
payment is due.
(4) However, if the obligor has not paid at the time when payment
is due, the obligee may require payment according to the applicable
rate of exchange prevailing either when payment is due or at the
time of actual payment.
Protection against currency
exchange risks
Three techniques of protection against exchange risks
 1° Maintenance of value clauses; different forms:
- Relating the price to (the value of) a foreign currency:
Traditionally often gold (gold value clause) – no longer important
and in Treaties now usually replaced by SDR (special drawing rights,
standard created by IMF in 1969), a monetary « basket » of 4 (5)
currencies
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- since 1 January 2011: 41,9 % US $, 37,4 % EU €, 9,4 % JP ¥ and 11,3% UK
£). 1 SDR = on 1-1-2011: 0,423 Eu, 0,66 US $, 0,111 UK £, 12,1 JP ¥
- From 1 October 2016 it will be: 41,73 % US $, 30,93 % EU €, 10,92 %
Chinese renminbi, 8,33 % JP ¥ and 8,09 % UK £
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Currency option clauses (unilateral option)
Relating the price to a specific index (esp. domestic contracts)
Price revision clauses
2° Exchange rate insurance: in most countries only available with
public agencies
Protection against currency
exchange risks
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3° Hedging transactions: cover the risk with a countertransaction
within the company or group by matching (balancing income and
expenditure in the same currency)
Forward exchange contract: creditor sells to a bank an amount of the
foreign currency (corresponding to the debt) for a sum in its own currency
at a forward exchange rate (or vice-versa for a debtor).
Cross-currency swaps between two creditors (exchange of currency with a
period of time at an agreed interest rate)
Bank accounts in foreign currency
Loan by a creditor of foreign currency which is immediately converted into
domestic currency (or vice versa: a foreign currency deposit by a debtor)
Currency futures (contract to sell & buy a given currency at a fixed price at
a specified future date)
Currency options contracts (call options: right to buy; put option: right to
selll); the option itself is bought at a price (« premium « )
NB. Such contracts traditionally made « OTC » – but see Reg. 648/2012 on
OTC derivatives, central counterparties and trade repositories
Payment instruments
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Payment instruments:
Negotiable instrument with abstract obligation: bills of exchange
and promissory notes
Negotiable instrument without acceptance: cheque
No negotiable instrument: credit card, money transfer (giro),
documentary letter of credit, digital wallet, etc.
Transfer of virtual currencies (best known: bitcoin)
Often variations on delegatio solvendi. General characteristics:
Creditor who accepts such instrument (as its beneficiary), must first
use the instrument (original right to payment suspended)
Payor who delegates payment to the delegated debtor (issuer of
instrument) disposes of its right against the delegated debtor (its
right is also suspended)
Negotiable instruments in
general
Negotiable instruments - Mainly 2 functions:
1° For all negotiable instruments: transfer of the right by transfer of
the document (« Das Recht aus dem Papier folgt das Recht am
Papier »), thus:
- NI incorporating right to performance: no notification of the debitor
cessus necessary
- NI incorporating property in a thing: no notification to bailee
necessary
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2° Possible additional function of NI incorporating a right to
payment: abstraction of the obligation
- at least formal abstraction (reversal burden of proof), even between
original parties
- substantive abstraction (in relation to third party)
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Bills of exchange & promissory
notes
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Promissory note:
Unconditional promise to pay a sum of money (direct promise
(« recta »), not drawn)
In a document: to bearer or to order
Transferable (without limits) (if to order, transfer requires an
endorsement)
« Abstract »: after transfer of the note, the promisor cannot raise
any defence from the underlying relationship (provision relationship)
against the holder of the note
See art. 75 and ff. Geneva Convention (= 75 ff. Belgian Statute on
Bills of Exchange and promissory notes)
Bills of exchange
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Bills of exchange:
« Draft », i.e. drawn instrument: the drawer draws a bill (draft) on a
drawee which he delivers to a payee (first beneficiary of the bill)
The bill is a document which:
- is explicitly named bill of exchange (or draft) and
- mentions the sum to be paid (unconditionally) and
- the date of maturity (form requirements) (art. 1 & 2 Geneva
Law)
The bill implies an order to pay given by drawer to drawee - to pay
the holder a certain sum at a future fixed time.
When the drawee accepts* the instruction to pay (acceptance of the
draft), he is unconditionally obliged to pay the sum at maturity
(value maintenance clause thus impossible) (*on acceptance, see
art. 21-29 Geneva Law)
Bills of exchange
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Bills of exchange:
NB. Drawer can be bearer (art. 3 Geneva Law)
Drawer is also liable towards bearer (in case of acceptance, liability
is subsidiary to that of the drawee); as long as bill not accepted,
drawer is liable for (non-)acceptance (art. 9 Geneva law). As to this
right of recourse against the drawer, see art. 43 Geneva law
Transferable (without limits) (if to order: by endorsement) (art. 11
Geneva law)
Every endorser guarantees (acceptance and) payment (art. 15
Geneva law)
« Abstract » (see infra)
Bill of exchange (accepted)
valuta
relationship
delegated
debtor: drawee,
(accepting)
delegating
debtor: drawer
provision
relationship
Bill of exchange
holder
Bills of exchange
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Abstraction / autonomy:
- independent from provision relationship drawer/drawee
(« abstraction ») : acceptor cannot raise defences out of that
relationship (against drawer abstraction is merely formal)
- independent from valuta relationship drawer/payee: acceptor
cannot raise defences out of that relationship
Bill can be « domiciled » on a bank account in order to simplify
collection (in Belgium, this collection is since 1999 centralised by
the banks in the hands of the National Bank)
Prescription (art. 70 Geneva law)
Against the acceptor: 3 years from the date of maturity
Holder against endorsers and drawer: one year from the date of
protest of of maturity
Endorsers against each other: 6 months reckoned from the day
when the endorser paid of was himself sued
Bills of exchange
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Used in various contexts – examples already mentioned:
mode of honouring of a letter of credit (by accepting a draft or by
drawing a draft on a third party)
client discount credit (bank purchases bills drawn by client of the
bank on its buyers)
endorsement to forfeiter of a bill drawn on a buyer (with forfeiter
waivering recourse against the drawer, « Isabel clause »)
Comparative law & harmonisation:
Mainly 2 systems: common law countries v. Geneva Uniform Law
(26 ratifications)
UNCITRAL Convention 1987 on International Bills of Exchange and
Promissory Notes (if the document explicitly refer to the
Convention) – but not in force (only 5 ratifications, 10 required)
Bills of exchange
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Common law countries (UCC Art. 3 < 1896 Uniform Negotiable Instruments
Act; UK 1882 Bills of Exchange Act): less strict system
Bearer is protected against all defences only if he acquired the bill « in due
course », i.e. without knowledge of any claim to or defence upon the
instrument
In principle no protection of a holder who acquired in good faith from a
holder without authority to dispose (unauthorised agent)
« Aval » (i.e. guarantee for a bill of exchange) is qualified as a suretyship
(dependent personal security)
Geneva Law: stricter system (higher abstraction)
Defences can only be invoked against a bearer who acquired in bad faith
(fraudulently) (art. 17 Geneva law)
Acquirer of possession in good faith is the owner of the bill
« Aval » is a surety largely abstracted from the obligation of the person for
whom given (either drawer or drawee): the only defences the aval can raise
relate to the formal invalidity of the bill of exchange (see art. 30 – 32
Geneva Law)
Modalities of payment
The contract (sale, service, ...) will - apart from price and currency normally also indicate the modalities of payment :
 If nothing else agreed: concomitant performance (cash on delivery).
Comp. 6.1.4 UPICC
 Often specific agreements:
- Advance payment (in whole or part), e.g. CWO: Cash with order,
CIA Cash in advance); (« cash » includes money transfer, now
usually an e-transfer)
- Sometimes combined with a repayùent guarantee (see e.g. infra
Paypal)
- CAD: Cash against documents; D/P: Documents against payment:
possible when goods are represented by documents (see
documentary credit, l/c is honoured when conforming documents
are delivered).
Modalities of payment
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- Payment by means of instruments implying a delegation to pay (eg
buyer paying with a bill of exchange drawn on its debtor; paying
with a cheque drawn on its bank, paying by credit card, ...). See
6.1.7 UPICC
Creditor gives payment facilities, i.e. credit. E.g. payment after
delivery and inspection, possibly with an extra period for payment
(eg 1 month, 90 d.)
« Pay if paid »: debtor only has to pay when he is paid himself by
the next in the chain
Credit is often granted only if the debtor accepts (as drawee) a bill
of exhange (D/A: documents against acceptance) or signs a
promissory note, or gives a bank guarantee on demand
Where on the contrary no payment instrument is delivered, but only
a receipt for the goods, this is called « payment on open account »
Payment Collection procedures
Collection procedures: creditor engages one or more intermediaries (esp.
banks) as agent to collect the debt
 Most commonly when :
a) collecting payment instruments (financial documents) delivered by the
debtor to the creditor, such as bills of exchange, cheques, ... and/or
b) documents have to be delivered to the debtor in exchange for payment
(documents of title, transport documents, etc.).
a) only = « clean » collection; b) (or b + a) = « documentary collection »
 Parties involved:
Principal (who mandates a bank as agent)
Remitting bank (receiving the documents from the principal), agent of the
principal
Collecting bank, agent of the remitting bank in the country of payment
Presenting bank: bank of the payor, who pays in return for the required
documents
And/or the debtor from whom the money is collected
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Payment collection procedures
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Collection procedures (cont.)
Rights and obligations concerning this intervention:
customs are codified by the ICC in the Uniform Rules for Collections
(1956), now version URC 522 (1995, in force 1 Jan 199§)
they deal with the way banks have to handle documents in
collection procedures:
Rights and obligations concerning the intervention of intermediaries
(information duties, duty of care, calculation of costs and interest,
...)
Money transfer (giro)
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A bank can be involved as delegated debtor for a money transfer
(giro):
instruction to pay given (on paper, or electronically, ...)
by a payor
in favour of a payee
results (when accepted by the bank) in a credit for the beneficiary
(on its bank account) as mode of payment
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Money transfer with intervention of a single bank: see figure (order,
acceptance, performance by crediting account beneficiary)
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Often more than 1 bank involved : sending bank, receiving bank
Transfer of money
valuta
relationship
payment
institution
payor
(provision)
Money transfer
payee
Money transfer (giro)
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Harmonisation ?
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UNCITRAL model law 1992 on international credit transfers.
Contains:
- a conflict of law rule
- rules concerning the rights and obligations of the parties involved
(time for performance, liability, interest for late performance, etc.)
Model law has inspired EC-Directive 1997/5 on cross-border
transfers (transparency of contract conditions; duties concerning
time of performance, effects of instructions, ...)
Now replaced by the SEPA-Directive 2007/64 (next slide)
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In the US: Electronic Funds Transfer Act 1978.
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Other payment procedures
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Banks may also be involved as issuer of a documentary l/c (supra)
A credit card company can be involved as delegated debtor
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In the EU rights and obligations of parties to a payment service
have been harmonised by the SEPA-Directive 2007/64 (in force
since November 2009). In 2013 Commission Proposal for a recast,
Recast adopted by EP on Oct 8, 2015, now discussed by Council.
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EU law has introduced a uniform account number: IBAN (+ BIC to
identify the bank)
Credit card payment
adhering
business
(beneficiary)
Valuta
relationship
Card holder
(delegating party)
CC issuing Cy
(delegated
debtor)
Provision relationship
Credit card
Credit card
Private payment regimes
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E.g. Paypal has developed its own global rules and its own dispute
resolution system. However, standard conditions of contract vary
according to requirements of national mandatory law.
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Cross-border payments traditionally required 2 banks; now there are
global players, i.a. Paypal. (both payor and payee need also a bank
account to use Paypal, but for the payment itself there is only 1
intermediary)
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Additional features of Paypal: Paypal buyer protection:
Paypal will reimburse itself the payer in certain cases
The payee must reimburse Paypal if these conditions are met
Thus 2 semi-autonomous obligations
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Payments restrictions
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Not only currency exchange but also modes of payment can be
restricted by regulations to combat financing of crime and money
laundering
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In 1989, an intergovernmental organisation was founded, the FATF
(Financial Action task Force (on Money Laundering)), since 2001
also on combating terrorism financing.
It issues:
Recommendations, recognised as anti-money laundering (AML) and
counter-terrorist financing (CTF) standards.
A Blacklist of "Non-Cooperative Countries or Territories" (NCCTs)
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National offices, e.g. OFAC (Office on Foreign Assets Control of the
US Dept. of Finance)
Counter-trade
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Counter-trade or compensatory trade: payment of goods (or
services) with other goods (or services), directly (barter) or
indirectly (linked contracts, such as reciprocal contracts of sale, or
buy-back contracts, offset arrangements (eg military equipment or
aircraft)
The « counter-trade agreement » is a framework contract setting
out matters such as
- which goods are suitable for counter-trade
- valuation of the goods (determination of price)
- modalities of payment of the balance (time, currency) (often
through a clearing account)
- restriction on further sale
- credit security, etc.
Counter-trade
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Uncitral Guide on countertrade
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Under GATT ?
Impose counter-trade is a quantitative restriction, thus in principle
prohibited
Maybe allowed by virtue of a) exceptions for developing countries,
b) exception of balance of payments , ...
Obligatory counter-trade prohibited in the Government Procurement
Agreement.
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