Mexican Revolution
An overview review for my favorite history
students borrowed from Mr. Millhouse at
Hebron High School but adapted and
made better because he left too much out.
 To what extent was Porfirio Diaz an effective
leader for Mexico?
 Debate.
Causes of the Mexican Revolution
Who is Porfirio Diaz? Positivism
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Porfirio Díaz (1876-1910)
Ruled as a dictator after seizing
control of the government when
he lost an election in 1876.
New Creoles”– Ruling elite
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Prior to the Porfiriato, Mexico had no modern
industry… Modernized Mexico by developing
new industries including smelting iron and
completed the national railroad. Opened the oil
industry to American and British investors.
Modernized the army and improved the banditry
issue.
Hired a British firm to redesign the urban
sewage systems which increased health
Refilled the national treasury and settled
Mexico’s debts reformed the tax code to collect
and utilize taxes more efficiently.
Farms were refocused to mono-crop economies
and most of the crops were exported for profit.
Developed urban culture centers like the
National Theater in Mexico City (promoted
European theater and arts)
Problems with Porfiriato
 Extreme
poverty (wealth disparity) Working class wages declined 20% while
COLA increased 80%
 Diet
for the average person was corn and chile– no meat.
 Life expectancy was to age 30 compared to age 50 in U.S. and other
developed countries. Infant mortality averaged 30%
 Land
concentrated into 2% of the private population and peonage debt
system developed (wages only spendable at “company stores” (tienda de
raya) – laborer becomes indebted to the hacienda and cannot leave)
 No
judicial protection from the hacienda
 Cultural
adaptations favored European culture (specifically French),
style, and attitudes. Bull fighting= baseball
 Did
not support Mexican derived art or cultural ideology. Suppressed
Mexican forms of literary and artistic expression
And more problems
 Allowed political elections in 1880 by supporting a Porfiriato puppet.
Ran for president again in 1884 and didn’t bother with future elections.
 Political favors and high level corruption; established jefes or political
bosses to administer areas of Mexico (often wealthy families–
hacendado system –Terrazas-Creel clan)
 Government seized significant tracts of farm land and church lands and
sold it to “favorites”
 Cientificos promoted “social darwinist” ideology towards the indigineous
population– extreme racism.
 Rigid press censorship and suppression of speech
 European and American investments: made Mexico dependent on
foreign markets
Liberal Plan of 1906
 Objectives:
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 Orozco, Arriaga, Madero, and
Education: rural
Labor: child labor, safety
standards, and fair wages.
Land: ejidos and peasantsbreak hacendados and
legal protections
Legal: rehabilitation, free
speech,
National sovereignty and
ownership of national
resources.
Flores Magon Brothers
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Fought for freedom of press
and the ability to publish their
newspaper Regeneracion.
Arrested for political
dissidence on several
occassions.
Fled to the United States; first
settled in Texas; but moved to
St. Louis, MS after a Porfiriato
assassin got too close
Established a center for
radical activities.
Power to the people:
Strikes 1905-1907 (talk to me)
 Cananea Consolidated
Copper Company (Sonora)
 Inspired and encouraged
by the Regeneracion.
 U.S. owned company.
 Turned violent; Colonel
Greene called in U.S. for
help: Arizona Rangers
crossed border
 People on both sides were
killed

Mexican sovereignty was
violated by US military.
 Sparked more revolts and
protests throughout
Mexico.
 Textile industry (VC)
 Strikers were unarmed.
 Tienda de Rayas
 Diaz arbitration
 Media suppression
 U.S. appeals denied
Diaz decides to hold an election
“No matter what my friends and
supporters say, I retire when my
presidential term ends, and I shall
not serve again. I shall be eighty
years old then. I have waited
patiently for the day when the
people of the Mexican Republic
should be prepared to choose and
change their government… I
believe that day has come. I
welcome an opposition party in the
Mexican Republic.”
James Creelman interview,
Pearson Magazine, 1908
 During the National Convention
in 1910, Secretary Limantour
nomimated Diaz and Corral
(VP) as the candidates (even
though there were other
Porfirista supporters vying for
the position)
 Reyes was logical successor of
Diaz as his military general and
war hero (Reyistas)
 Diaz accepted (and sent his
competition [Reyes] away on a
“military mission” to Europe)
 (Reyes never intended to
challenge Diaz so why the
mission?)
Anti-Reelection movement
 Madero was a criollo; well educated, from a family of wealth and
prestige.
 When revolutionary activity began as early as 1901, Madero
helped fund a liberal revolutionary newspaper
 Mining, cattle, land, banking
 Madero was “Europeanized” and a “modern liberal”;
 He heard about the complaints on haciendas and worked to
create fair conditions within his haciendas (only slightly more
successful or generous than his peers)
 Had run for political positions, but always lost to Diaz appointees.
Madero believed that nothing could changes until
democratic processes created a new climate in Mexico.
Challenges to Diaz:
What did Madero believe?
 Single-term presidency
should be focused on next
generation (not next
election)
 Problems of Mexico would
solve themselves through
the democratic process
 Free and honest elections
“The Mexican
people did not
want bread; they
wanted liberty”
-Madero
(during a political rally when asked why
he would not break up his haciendas)
Objective of the Mexican Revolution in 1910: Political Reform
Start of the Revolution was primarily political in focus based on the lack of
political elections and open democratic opportunities.
Start of the Revolution was primarily political in focus
 Election of 1910 (21 June 1910)
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Madero had been arrested for
abetting a fugitive from justice
(during a political rally)
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With Madero in jail, Diaz won by a
significant majority
 Made bail and put on house arrest,
He fled and made his way to San
Antonio, Texas where he rallied with
other revolutionaries.
 Madero called for Díaz to be
overthrown (Plan de San Luis Potosi)
Francisco Madero (1911-1913)
The Plan de San Luis Potosi
“People in their constant efforts for the triumph of the
ideals of liberty and justice, find it necessary at certain
historical moments to make the greatest sacrifices. Our
beloved fatherland has reached one of those moments.
A tyranny that we Mexicans have not been accustomed
to suffer since we won our independence oppresses us
in such a manner that it has become intolerable. In
exchange for that tyranny we are offered peace, but it is
a peace full of shame for the Mexican nation, because it
is based not on law but on force; because its goal is not
the enrichment and prosperity of the country, but the
enrichment of a small group.”
First Phase Political Reform
(Madero): Plan de San Luis Potosi
Issued on 5 October 1910
Declared the presidency
and all leadership of Mexico
unconstitutional
 Demanded that all
revolutionaries rise up
and fight on 20
November 1910
 Threatened to shoot
Argued the Constitution is
anyone who supported
the supreme law of the land
Diaz. (talk to me)
Declared himself the lawful
President of Mexico based
on the election of 1910
 Diaz is forced to resign
on 25 May 1911.
Revolution begins
 November 19- Madero crossed into Mexico but no one
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seemed organized so he crossed back into the U.S.
However, insurrection started throughout Mexico forcing
Diaz to spread his military in counter-attacks– November
20-21, 1910
Most successful fighting in Sonora and Chihuahua under
the leadership of Orozco and Villa
Madero finally joined the revolution in February 1911.
Orozco tries to honor Madero as the revolutionary leader,
but Madero is a terrible strategists… clearly a politician
 Why would this be a problem?
Battle of Ciudad Juarez: April 2-May 10
 Orozco and Villa recommend that the revolutionaries
take control of Ciudad Juarez–
 border city across the Rio Grande from El Paso,
Texas
 (would give easy access to resources, the river for
travel, and an escape route)
 Initially, Madero agrees to the plan but at the last
minute he changes his mind because he feared the
U.S. might believe they were attacking U.S. soil.
 Orozco attacks anyway…
Ciudad Juarez = rebel victory
 Madero angry that Orozco defied him so
when he appointed his provisional cabinet, he
did not appoint Orozco or Villa a position.
The absence was noted.
Battle of Ciudad benefits
Battle of Ciudad negatives
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Treaty of Ciudad Juarez:
May 21, 1911
 Diaz and his presidency is over. Formal
resignation May 25, 1911
 Francisco Leon de la Barra (secretary of
foreign relations) would be interim president
until the next election (not Madero) with a
porfirista cabinet…
 No reforms were stipulated.
Interim Presidential Election
 Francisco Madero
 Resumes his anti-
 Bernard Reyes
 Returns from European
mission
Diaz message…
 Becomes the Porfirista
candidate
 Wins election
because there is no
opposition… but
Madero has made
enemies.
 Madero’s supporters
attacked Reyes at a rally
 Reyes freaked out and
backed out of the election
and moved to San Antonio
Mexican Revolutionaries (1910)
Pancho Villa
Francisco Madero
The Revolution Spreads:
Madero out
 Lack of land and labor reforms led to
open rebellion.
 Madero failed to make any significant
changes to support the demands of
the revolution.
 Emiliano Zapata

“Land and Liberty”
 Pancho Villa
 Orozco is angry about his isolation
and lack of inclusion after Madero
has power.
 Carranza and members of Madero’s
cabinet are disillusioned
 In total FIVE different revolutionary
movements for various causes
throughout Mexico
 Plan de Ayala
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Immediate and
sweeping land
reforms returning
land to the
peasants
 Plan Orozquista
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Immediate
sweeping social
and labor reforms
Decena Tragica:
counter revolution (the 5th rebellion?)
 Appealed to the
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 Felix Diaz:
traditional order
Support from the
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disciplined military
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Only officers in
Veracruz responded.
Diaz arrested for
treason and
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sentenced to death.
Madero chose to
appeal the death
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sentence. Why?
 Bernardo Reyes
Nephew to Porfirio
died on the first
Diaz
day of battle.
(Felicista
movement)
 February 9, 1913:
Diaz plotted with
General Manuel
Reyes (who was
Mondragon
also in prison) for a
released the
second coup.
prisoners and
Military cadets
helped lead a
were used in the
march on the
battle that lasted 10
National Palace
days.
Huerta was in
 Civilian casualties
charge of Madero’s
(1000 + deaths)
army defending.
Results: Pact of the Embassy
 Disgusted by Madero’s
indifference and
mismanagement, Huerta
switched sides and halted
the defense of the Palace.
 Huerta arrested Madero
and his cabinet.
 The final negotiations
were handled by the U.S.
(hmmm).
Huerta’s coup was supported by
Henry Lane Wilson– American
Ambassador (Dollar Diplomacy)
H.L. Wilson hated Madero and
meddled shamelessly against him.
Madero was eventually
assassinated under the fake stories
that Madero had tried to escape.
General consensus: made up story
but no one knows the truth or who
ordered the assassination.
How did Huerta end up in power legally?
I love this story:
 Huerta demanded official resignations from Madero and Suarez
 Called a special session of Congress. Congress officially
accepted the resignations (only 5 dissenting votes)
 10:24 PM: Lascurain-- Secretary of Foreign Relations (next in
line) was sworn in as President.
 Lascurain appoints Genera Huerta as Secretary of Interior.
 10:36: President Lasurain resigns.
 According to the Constitution of 1857, in the absence of a
President, Vice President, and Secretary of Foreign Relations, the
Secretary of Interior shall assume the powers of the Presidency.
 Therefore, Huerta was sworn in as President just before midnight
(he was already wearing a black tuxedo after all.)
Who is Huerta?
Could he have been a reformer?
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This is a counter revolution against
Madero so other revolutionaries did not
intervene at first …
This is a return to a tyranny… Huerta had
no intention of honoring democratic
reforms and it escalated as the war turned
against him.
Like Juarez, Huerta was a native Indian
who came from a small Jalisco village and
attended the military academy on merit
during the Porfiriato where he was
charged with “enforcing peace”
Huerta resigned after losing the
Battle of Zacatecas
8 July 1914
18 months in power
Huerta could not afford to pay the growing
army and eventually collapses
Huerta was forced to militarize Mexico in
response to the Revolutionary movements
throughout Mexico: (bad idea)
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Leva, conscription
retooling factories
Moving army units were underequipped
and would deplete food and supplies in
each city.
Reactionary to loss of battles against
revolutionary groups
Enacted censorship, secret police
Political assassinations
Arrogance: demanded loyalty and
submission by revolutionaries.
•
Zapata refused to submit and
arrested the “federal peace
commissioners”
Maybe a little progressive? Huerta did enact
educational reforms and land reform:
 Focused on indigenismo; improving the quality of life for natives
 Secretary of Interior under Huerta- Aureliano Urrutia was a full
blooded Indian and Huerta allowed him to work on village reform
 Agrarian reform: free seed distribution and authorized the
restoration of 78 ejidos.
 Created a cabinet position to study land redistribution and propose
constitutional changes.
 Opened 131 new schools for 10,000 students
 Raised teachers pay and liberalized the curriculum
 Promoted national military schools (think Napoleon)
 Increased educational budget to 9.9% (Madero 7.8% and Diaz
highest 7.2)
 Attempted minor labor and church reform (lacks significance)
Essential Questions
 Examine the objectives of the Mexican
Revolution of 1910.
 To what extent are the objectives of the
Revolution satisfied by 1920?
 Compare and contrast the objectives of
revolutionary factions of 1910-1920
 To what extent was factionalism an obstacle
to the advancement of the Revolution?
 Analyze whether each key player in the
Revolution was a revolutionary or a reformer.
Resistence Coalition: plan de Guadalupe
Carranza: Coahuila
 First chief of the
“Constitutional Army”
 Similar to Madero:
political plan only
Obregon: Sonora
 Signed Carranza’s
plan with reservations
Pancho Villa: Chihuahua
 Aligned to Carranza’s
plan
Zapata: did not support
Madero, Huerta or
Carranza because neither
group offered reforms.
 Zapata still helped by
diverting resources
What were the demands of Orozco?
 Social and political reform:
 Nationalization of
 Liberal Plan of 1906:
resources including the
railroad
 Redistribution of land to
anyone living on land for
20 years (title)
 Any lands illegally seized
from peasantry were
returned to the ejido
 Government land and
fallow hacienda lands
were to be redistributed
 10 hour work day
 Restrictions for child labor
 Improved working
conditions with safety
measures
 Higher wages
 Suppression of the tienda
de raya
Fighting in the South (Zapatistas)
Plan de Ayala
 Wanted to be free from government tyranny
 Wanted agrarian land reform and the land to be
redistributed and given directly to the farmers (ejidos)
including “illegally seized lands”. The burden of proof
for ownership would be on the Hacienda and usurpers
 Demanded 1/3 of church land and hacienda land given
to the villages.
 Wanted better living conditions for indigenous Indians.
 Wanted improved educational opportunities.
U.S. and foreign policies
 Huerta lost U.S. support when he failed to stabilize the country.
 Woodrow Wilson would not acknowledge Huerta because he was
“anti-democratic” under his “Moral Diplomacy” (after all what is
Woodrow Wilson’s policy now?)
 Wilson felt Huerta was a bully and arrogant.
 Huerta called Wilson the “Puritan” and thought he was equally
arrogant.
 They are both right…
 The Confrontation in Veracruz over rumors Germans were bringing in
weapons (Tampico Affair)
What was the Tampico Affair?
Spring 1914 (April)
 The U.S. parked a navy vessel USS Dophin off the coast of Mexico
 A small landing party was ordered to get gas
 Sailors wandered into restricted area and were arrested (paraded
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through the streets under arrest to the prison… publicly humiliated)
An hour later, Mexico sent an official policy and released the sailors
(no harm no foul)?
American admiral said he wanted more apology and demanded
Mexico fly the American flag over Tampico port and offer a 21 gun
salute (highest acknowledgement)
President Woodrow Wilson thinks this is a great solution
Mexico first said no. US threatens military action.
(Huerta) said sure if America returns the salute.
Wilson realizes if he agrees, he is acknowledging the Huerta
regime. Wilson says no.
Stalemate
Break the stalemate;
the Germans are coming?
 U.S. consul sends Wilson a message saying a German ship is
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scheduled to arrive on 21 April with a large shipment of arms.
Wilson demands a full naval occupation of Veracruz and
seizes custom houses
People die in the hundreds (many civilian)
Riots break out and anti-American sentiment is out of control
Everyone condemns U.S. (Pigs of Yanquilandia)
Constitutionalists condemn Huerta too.
Huerta forced to resign and blames U.S.
Some say this would lead to the Zimmerman Note in April
1917- German’s say Mexico should develop their own
relationship and not be U.S. puppets… Yikes
Third Phase:
The Constitution and Carranza
 Military Convention of Aguascalientes
October 1914 met to try to reform the
Mexican Constitution and stabilize
leadership
 What’s up with flags? The Flag of the
Convention was signed by participants as
a symbol of support for the new order…
until Zapata’s representatives arrived.
 Revolution split between the Zapatistas
and Villistas (reformers)
 and Carrancistas and Obregonistas
(Constitutionalists)
Results of Aguascalientes
 Eulalio Gutierrez
 The division of the
chosen as provisional
Constutitionalists led
president of Mexico.
some to support the
Revolutionary
 Carranza stormed
movement.
out of the convention
in protest.
 Established a
 Meeting of
Constitutional
Xochimilco
government in
Veracruz (where did
the US go? Hmmm).
Will the real revolutionaries please stand
up? This is the problem for sure
 The Centaur of the
North Villistas
 Attila of the South
Zapatas
 1915 is noted as the year beginning
uncontrolled chaos, excessive violence, and
increasing death of both military and Civilian
populations.
 Emergence of warlords in smaller regions
seized control of various areas in self-interest
Is the Mexican Revolution also a Civil War?
Three Mexican Factions with Five Presidents
 Gutierrez (considered the “legit” government) controls
Mexico City calls themselves Conventionalists
 Carranza appealed to masses from Veracruz with
support from Obregon called Constitutionalists
 Mexican Constitution of 1917
 Villa becomes governor of Chihuahua and claims he is
President of Mexico
 Zapatatistas supports Roque Gonzalez Garza (who?)
 Battle of Ceyala
 April 1915
 Villa attacked with
 Villa is becoming
very weak and
distracted because
of US
25,000 men.
 Villa lost 15000 men
 Obregon (leading
Carranza’s men) lost
 President Wilson
500
(USA) supported
 Obregon used new
Constitutionalists
military tactics being
and withdrew from
used in European war
Veracruz
(barbed wire and artillery
barrage)
US Intervention
 Villa began to harass
US-- killing American
citizens.
 General Pershing goes
after Villa: $130mil.
Spent on capture efforts
 Santa Isabel: Villa
kills 15 American
engineers sent to
reopen a mine in
Mexico.
 Columbus, NM: Villa
 Carranza protests US
action on Mexican soil
and in 1917 Pershing is
forced with withdraw.
Never captured Villa
attacks small
American town; killed
18, and destroyed
town raider style
Constitutional Convention 1917:
Queretaro Congress
 Carranza calls on Mexico City to consolidate power and hold the
convention -- quickly realizes the Constitutionalists are unfocused and divided
 No reformers were invited
 New Elite: 70% of the Convention are non-military.
 ½ the Delegation are educated– university level with professorial
degrees
 Young, middle class, politically ambitious
 Leader Francisco Mugica
 Many considered radical liberals and wanted total overhaul of
society. (nicknamed Jacobins by their enemies… reference?)
Carranza the Moderate:
Repeat of the Constitution of 1857– not enough–
liberals demand more reform and win!
 5 anti-clerical amendments
3, 5, 24, 27, 130
 Marriage declared civil
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 No legal status or
protection of religious
organizations
 Priests classified as
“ordinary citizens”
 States could limit number
of priests
 Priests had to be native
born
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ceremony
No public worship
outside of church and
church grounds
No religious political
parties
All religious
developments must be
approved by the
government
Church accused of
blocking social progress
Anti-clerical amendments
 All promoted the federal government authority over the
authority of the Church.
 Article 130 determined that members of the clerical
order were not citizens of Mexico because their loyalty
was to the Pope.
 This would have far reaching concerns for the clerical
population.
 Caused concern from the Vatican Pope Pius XI
denounced the Constitution creating a crisis for Mexican
citizens
Article 3: very controversial
 Primary education
should be free and
obligatory.
 Education must be
secular.
 What’s the concern?
 Can you really limit
Catholic schools
and access to this
form of education?
 Available to all citizens  Who will pay for it if
 Supported 2:1
the Church’s aren’t
in charge? How?
 Article 3: Education reform
 Compromised with the Church to help build
educational opportunities but was anti-clerical in
terms of social control
 Vasconcelos made the Secretary of Education and
worked to improve schools.
 Commissioned Diego Rivera and other writers and
artists to develop nationalism and Mexican pride and
educational reforms.
 Education for children and adults to improve literacy
and citizenship
Carranza: --anti-Huerta- Is Carranza a “counter-revolution?”
 Despite Vasconcelos, Carranza does not
have a supportive educational record:
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Carranza reduced teacher salaries
Closed rural schools
Only dedicated 0.09% of the federal budget to
education (Huerta was 9.9, Madero 7.8)
Social programs dropped from 11.6% to 1.9%
Argument: waste of necessary federal monies
and it was Huerta’s greatest achievement…
Article 27: the Zapata amendment? Land Reform
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Subsoil rights.
Only Mexicans by birth or naturalization can own land
(unless given government permission and promise to
follow government law.)
Nationalized oil? Kinda…
 The Bucareli agreement worked with U.S. oil
refineries to allow foreign ownership as long as
“positive acts were conducted” to improve
conditions in Mexico, taxes were paid and labor
laws were honored.
Nationalized Mexican land and protected private
property ownership from expropriation
But did it work?
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Land must be used for the good of public interest
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Broke the large hacendado system
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Redistributed land to the farmers and land laborers (in order to
keep peace with larger land owners,
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Also confiscated Church land which will be controversial as it
attacks Church power and authority
Constitution of 1917 and Carranza’s legitimate
presidency marked the end of the Mexican Revolution.
To what extent do you agree?
 Laid basis for land reform
 450,000 acres of land redistributed (700 sq mi)
 (Stockton is 40,000 acres or 62 sq mi,
Sacramento is 100 sq mi, Los Angeles is 503
sq. mi): San Joaquin Count is 912000 acres or
1400 sq mi. California is 164,000 sq. mi (104
million acres)…
 One Terraza family member owned 7 million
acres
 No
major redistribution until 1934
Carranza shuts down Zapatistas
 Carranza sends federal troops to Zapatista towns creating
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violent battles and total destruction of the region
Can’t find Zapata directly so schemes
Colonel Guajardo sends message to Zapata saying he wants
to mutiny support Zapatista movement.
Zapata suspects trap and demands release of Zapatistas...
Guajardo complies and seizes Jonacatepec.
Zapata cautiously agrees to meet
April 10, 1919 Hacienda de Chinameca
When Zapata rode into the courtyard, Colonel greeted him and
a bugle sounded…
Soldiers shot Zapata at point blank range.
Considered the ultimate betrayal of the country. We will come
back to this
Article 123: Labor reform
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Established an 8 hour work day with overtime options
Outlawed child labor and improved work conditions for
workers over 14 and for women including maternity
protection
Established equal pay between men and women (very
liberal)
Established a 6 day work week
Established a minimum wage paid in a national currency
without restrictions
Improved work conditions and safety regulations
Allowed for union development and the ability to strike
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Union CROM (Regional Confederation of Mexican workers) to protect
labor conditions and continue to improve labor situation
Labor Reform: Orozco and Villa
win the day? NOPE.
 New labor laws
 Carranza was anti-union and worked against union
organization in 1915.
 After the passage of Article 123: Carranza simply did
not enforce the law and referred all issues to the
federal courts (which weren’t fully organized yet).
 Despite his lack of support: CROM will develop.
“Confederacion Regional Obrera Mexicana” first
major nationwide union.
 No major enforcement of labor laws until 1931
What happened to Carranza?
The Plan de Agua Prieta: The Obregonistas
 The assassinations (including Zapata’s) and the lack of
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implementation of the Constitution caused many supporters to
denounce Carranza
1920 election (no re-election rule) Carranza was not eligible to run
and tried to name his successor. Some “no name” civilian (Ignacio
Bonillas).
Obregon accused Carranza of rigging the elections and felt he
should have received Carranza’s support based on his loyalty and
alignment.
Created an alliance with northern generals: a different guy named
Huerta and another guy named Calles (we need Calles’ name).
Marched on Mexico City; Carranza tried to flee the capital to exile.
Assassinated by one of his own guards who is a suspected
supporter of the Obregonistas
What happened to Pancho Villa
 Tried to resist Carranza until 1920 but was very
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ineffective after Ceyala
He is offered a large hacienda (25,000 acres) in
Chihuahua and retired. (Interim President Huerta
brokered the deal)
Created a military compound for his soldiers to have
a haven to also retire.
Villa militia was given 500,000 pesos to maintain the
compound (by the govt)
Is Villa a sell out?
He was assassinated in 1923. NO one knows who
ordered the hit, but Obregon is suspected.
Aftermath of Revolution Military
Phase 1910-1920 Both sides guilty
 Over one million people died (somewhere between 1.5-2
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mil total but accurate records were not kept in the rural
regions).
1/8 of total population: Every family lost someone.
Most deaths were after battle from wounds and illnesses
and lack of medical care and training.
Deaths included combatants, executed political prisoners
and civilians caught in the insurrections
Violent and brutal behaviors during the revolution:
mutilated bodies and lynchings were common
undermining the idealism of the revolution.
Refugees flee Mexican violence: Oct 1913: 8000
crossed the border in Texas
 Farming, ranching, and mining economies were
destroyed by fighting and loss of laborers
 Oil industry improved during revolution (WWI and
Foreign ownership <US>?)
 No major bank or newspaper survived
 Large cities demolished and reversed whatever
infrastructure had been developed during the
Porfiriato
 Schools were destroyed as symbols of “thought
control” and over 100,000 children could not return to
school.
Xenophobia: a backlash
 Reactionary to Diaz coddling of foreign
interests. Labeled exploiters and often
targeted by revolutionary groups.
 Stories of foreign residents murdered (village
of 200 Chinese migrants– Spanish expelled
by Villa– US based Mormon missionaries
were targeted and forced to leave their
mission duties)
But the good:
 Emerging Mexican national identity that
includes the masses.
 Shifting expectations of land and labor
 Constitution and a move towards a republic
base of power
 Recognition as an American independent
nation
Women in the Revolution
 Intellectuals
Called for equal rights, women’s suffrage, and other
reforms
 Often endured threats, imprisonment, etc.
 Soldaderas
 Served as nurses, cooks, foraged for food, washed
clothes and other services
 Served in the rebel army and the federal army
 Women Soldiers fought alongside the men with equal
honor
 Women workers and farmers when the men were gone.
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Were often at the mercy of passing armies: noted stories
of rape and assault
Women in the Revolution
Women in the Revolution
Soldaderas and the role of women:
emancipation and liberalism
 Women found new opportunities after the war
because of the shortage of adult males due to
such a high death count. Women could
contract themselves more favorably.
 Women found a new voice in local
governments after earning the “respect” of
their male peers during the fighting.
 New educational opportunities developed in
response to these new roles being filled by
women.
Cultural and art movement
develops to define a new identity
 Mariano Azuela wrote Los de Abajo focused
on telling the story of the revolution through
the perspective of the masses. It is an honest
insight and criticism of the revolution as it
affected people.
 Mexican music: Manuel Ponce and Carlos
Chavez-- native sound develop that blend folk
tradition Adelita, Valentina, La Cucaracha
and other songs of the revolution became
national anthems and ballads
Art movement and muralism
 Artists were some of the most vocal
opponents of the Diaz regime and the
limitations of art in the Porfiriato.
 Ironically, Huerta was the leader who
assigned a native director to the Art
Academy: Alfredo Ramos Martiez who
reformed the curriculum and introduced a
native identity to visual arts.
 Introduced muralism.
Diego Rivera
Diego Rivera
The Constructive Phase
“The revolution begins when the fighting ends”
– Dr. Marjorie Sanchez Walker
Constructive Phase 1920-1930
Is the Revolution over at this point?
 Obregon elected President in a legitimate election after
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Carranza flees (November 1920).
Obregon implements the constitution and national
reconstruction– focuses on reconstruction and education
reforms through modest but decisive changes.
Struggled with the Post-WWI slump and finding markets
for Mexican resources
Oil industry was thriving but largely foreign owned–
Obregon slowly nationalize the oil industry and pushed
out foreign companies (this will become a controversial
decision with the U.S.)
Producing 193 million barrels of oil: 3rd largest producer
Jose Vasconcelos
 Article 3: Vasconcelos: Secretary of Education
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Considered one of the brightest minds of
Mexico
 Vasconcelos was anti-Diaz
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Ateneo de la Juventud
 Supporter of Madero
 Constitutionalist activist during Huerta’s regime
 Carranza supporter of educational reform
 Obregon makes him an official cabinet member
Vasconcelos continued Huerta’s
and Naranjo’s reforms
 Continued revision of curriculum
 Patron of the rural school
 Advocated for increased educational funds
 Compulsory streamlined education of rural children in
elementary:
 Reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, Mexican
History.
 Resistance to teachers: viewed as government agents
encroaching on church domain.
 Shift in time and with adult education.
 Built over 1000 schools and 2000 libraries built in 4
years (1920-1924) (portable libraries for rural schools)
Article 3: flaws and compromise
 The government did not have enough
money to fully implement secular free
compulsory education.
 Allowed some church schools with strict
oversight and control of the curriculum
 Encouraged Protestant missionaries
and the YMCA to establish schools and
social programs.
Murals:
 Cultural art told stories and history lessons
 Used to teach Mexico history to illiterate and
non-Spanish speaking citizens.
 Created a national identity on an international
level.
 Included a native identity: murals reflected
society.
Article 123: Labor reform
 Obregon worked with Luis
Morones (head of CROM) and
supported the union
organization to avoid any labor
backlash.
 Modest reforms laborers were
offered some protections in
various industries.
 CROM membership rose from
50,000-1.2 mil in 4 years.
 Labor disputes were often
handled locally and Obregon
received criticism for not being
more directly pro-active in thee
labor issues.
 Other unions were not
supported…radical antigovernment unions were
crushed.
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Communist Federation styled
after Marxist ideas
Industrial Workers of the
World (Wobblies) anarchist
 Considered foreign influence
and extremist therefore
outlawed.
 Some critics argued his
favoritism undermined the
power of CROM
Article 27: Land reform
 Compromised on land distribution.
 Feared a breakdown of haciendas would result in a
drop of agricultural productivity (farms are already
destroyed and people are starving– can’t risk it)
 Feared a backlash and loss of support from the
United States regarding foreign investment
 Proceeded slowly but Obregon redistributed 3 million
acres of land to over 600 villages establishing “ejidos”
during his presidency benefitting 140,000 villagers
 Criticized by Soto y Gama and other Zapatistas for not
supporting land reform properly.
Obregon and the United States
 President of the United States:
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Warren G. Harding –
Republican supporter of Capitalism, Freeenterprise, and big business.
Large influence by the oil industry and Sinclair,
Doheny ,Hammon (oil giants) Extra Credit:
research the Teapot Dome Scandal
 Argued to protect U.S. investment and
ownership in Mexico and protested Article 27
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Demanded withdrawal of presidential
recognition if Obregon enforced the article
Constitutional interpretation:
 Obregon fears economic destruction if oil
production stops.
 Obregon fears political suicide if he caves to
US pressure
 Mexican Supreme Court intervened and ruled
that oil companies would not be seized if the
company was performing “positive acts” of
development prior to the implementation of
the Constitution.
 What is a “positive act”?
Bucareli Agreement
 Allowed active investors in Mexico to retain their
property.
 Allowed Mexican government to seize fallow and
undeveloped land from foreign investors.
 Set precedence for future investments with foreign
investors
 Worked towards resolving “loss of property” claims during
the revolution.
 Mexican nationalists viewed the Bucareli agreement as
selling out Mexican rights and called for revival of
revolution: Is this why Villa was threatening to come out?
Plutarco Elias Calles: Considered
a radical liberal
 Faced immediate
opposition:
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Conservative Catholics
Hacendados
Military leaders who felt
Obregon
Nationalists (antiBucareli)
Silenced labor leaders
De la Huerta (insulted he
didn’t receive the
nomination)
 Remained loyal to
Obregon:
 Most of the military
 CROM and the
workers of CROM
 U.S. Diplomatic
recognition.
 Peasants.
Legacy of Obregon
 Very progressive in presidency based on
Mexican history.
 Could not satisfy all factions
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Labor leaders not part of CROM
Church (even though Obregon avoided
enforcing the anti-clerical laws)
Hacendados and Large land owners
Some foreign investors
 Would encourage a peaceful transition of the
presidency to Plutarco Calles
Cristero Rebellion
 Calles decided to enforce the anti-clerical laws in order
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to strengthen the Federal government.
Archbishop of Mexico told Mexican citizens to reject
the Constitution of 1917 and called for another
revolution.
Calles disbanded the clerical orders
Churches went on strike and shut down for three
years.
This led to an attack on civil institutions (secular
schools, government buildings,etc)
Military murdered Church officials and priests and
looted churches
 Obregon ran for re-election in 1928 wanting to resolve
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the rebellion and restore order.
Won the election but was assassinated on the day he
was to take office.
Assassinated by a Cristero supporter of Madre
Conchita (a Cristero radical nun) named Toral. Both
were prosecuted. Toral was executed and Conchita
received the maximum penalty allowed for a woman
(20 years)
Calles supporter were appointed to run for President
and Calles established the Maximato (puppet
presidents under his influence) from 1928-1934
A single party state emerged (PNR)
Lazaro Cardenes
 Originally a supporter of Obregon and Calles
 Considered a liberal reformer
 Refused to allow Calles to bully his presidency by replacing the
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cabinet and exiling Calles and his Callistas
Well respected governor of Michoacan who had a direct relationship
with the people rather than bureaucrats
Continued land redistribution to communal ejidos.
Continued to implement secular education and minimize church
influence with a large financial commitment to rural education
Allowed the CTM to develop (another labor union) to continue to
improve labor and working conditions.
Nationalized oil despite U.S. protests (the Great Depression and
Roosevelt’s anti-intervention policies kept U.S. protest minimal and
forced economic cooperation)
Eventually, Cardenes ran out of money and his reforms slowed down
By 1940 Historians argue that most of the reforms of the
Mexican revolution were achieved.
To what extent do you agree?
 Land reform– ejidos is there enough land redistribution?
 Labor reform– CROM and CTM – is there enough protection?
 Social reform– male dominated society but women had more
educational and social opportunities
 Education reform– development of rural schools and modern
universities – does it improve the lives of the average citizen?
 Urbanization – development of Mexico City as a cultural center
with arts, music, and literature that reflected a true native
Mexican identity – is there enough advancement to positively
change the daily lives of people?
 Industrialized and advancing technology (railroad, oil refineries,
advanced farming equipment) – does the Mexican economy
stabilize and improve?
Long term impact of Mexican Revolution
 For more information: go to my website and read Chapter 39 of the
“Reform Phase” file
 You should also read Chapter 40 the Post Revolution file. It discusses
how WWII impacted Mexico (this could help on Paper 2 and 3 in a major
way) and stalled the continued progress. Mexico will eventually
deteriorate and undo all of the Revolutionary reforms.
 If you are REALLY interested in the long term impact of the Revolution,
borrow the book from me and read the 4th section (several chapters)
because it covers Mexico into the modern age
 Paper 2 favorite question: How did WWII impact the
development of a society in TWO regions (You could talk about
Mexico compared to Germany division or breakdown of society in
Eastern Europe, etc)
 Paper 3 favorite question: How did WWII impact (one or two
countries) in the Americas (U.S. development and Mexico)