Diabstraksikan oleh: Smno.psl.ppsub.jun2012
TEKNOLOGI PENGELOLAAN
Environment technologies
PENGANTAR
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Technology development is key to ensure environmental efficiency and
legal compliance when applying EMAS:
Links between EMAS and environmental technologies can be
summarized in the following aspects:
 Environmental policy might include the will to use cleaner
technologies or Best Available Technology’s
 Skills and competences of the labour force have to be sufficiently
updated and balanced with technology used.
 Objectives and targets have to be designed taking into account
environmental performance (planned and actual) and technology
changes.
 Operational control and non-compliance management require a
periodic assessment and review of the technological means.
 Auditing process and team shall correspond to the technology
development of the organization.
Environmental technology (abbreviated as envirotech) or green technology
(abbreviated as greentech) or clean technology (abbreviated as cleantech) is
the application of one or more of environmental science, green chemistry,
environmental monitoring and electronic devices to monitor, model and
conserve the natural environment and resources, and to curb the negative
impacts of human involvement.
The term is also used to describe sustainable energy generation technologies
such as Photovoltaics, Wind Turbines, Bioreactors, etc.
Sustainable development is the core of environmental technologies. The term
environmental technologies is also used to describe a class of electronic
devices that can promote sustainable management of resources.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_technology .
TEKNOLOGI LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
PENDAHULUAN
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Several environmental technologies are presented, covering the
following issues:
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LIMBAH
POLUSI UDARA
Air limbah
Tanah
KEBISINGAN
PEMANTAUAN
Module covers environmental technologies suitable for small and medium
enterprises, public agencies and environmental organizations, taking into
account investment costs and know-how. Expensive or high-developed
technologies might have not been presented in the module then.
PENGOLAHAN AIR LIMBAH = Sewage treatment
Sewage treatment is conceptually similar to water purification.
Sewage treatments are very important as they purify water per
levels of its pollution.
The more polluted water is not used for anything, and the least
polluted water is supplied to places where water is used affluently.
It may lead to various other concepts of environmental protection,
sustainability etc.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_technology .
GREEN TECHNOLOGY
The term "technology" refers to the application of knowledge for practical
purposes.
The field of "green technology" encompasses a continuously evolving group
of methods and materials, from techniques for generating energy to nontoxic cleaning products.
The present expectation is that this field will bring innovation and changes in
daily life of similar magnitude to the "information technology" explosion over
the last two decades. In these early stages, it is impossible to predict what
"green technology" may eventually encompass.
The goals that inform developments in this rapidly growing field
include:
1. Sustainability - meeting the needs of society in ways that can
continue indefinitely into the future without damaging or depleting
natural resources. In short, meeting present needs without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
2. "Cradle to cradle" design - ending the "cradle to grave" cycle of
manufactured products, by creating products that can be fully reclaimed
or re-used.
3. Source reduction - reducing waste and pollution by changing patterns
of production and consumption.
4. Innovation - developing alternatives to technologies - whether fossil
fuel or chemical intensive agriculture - that have been demonstrated to
damage health and the environment.
5. Viability - creating a center of economic activity around technologies
and products that benefit the environment, speeding their
implementation and creating new careers that truly protect the planet.
Diunduh dari: http://www.green-technology.org/what.htm
Environmental technologies - EU definition
Environmental technologies –
[…] include all technologies whose use is less environmentally harmful than
relevant alternatives […].
They encompass technologies and processes to manage pollution (e.g. air
pollution control, waste management), less polluting and less resource-intensive
products and services and ways to manage resources more efficiently (e.g.
water supply, energy-saving technologies).
Thus defined, they pervade all economic activities and sectors, where they
often cut costs and improve competitiveness by reducing energy and resource
consumption, and so creating fewer emissions and less waste (ETAP, 2004).
Environmental technologies:
are any technology, that either directly or indirectly improves the
environment. It includes technologies for limiting pollution with
the held of cleaning, more environmentally friendly products and
production processes, more efficient energy and ressource
management as well as technological systems that reduce the
environmental impact.
Examples include e.g. technology flue gas cleaning, wind
turbines, water treatment, enzymes for animal feed and washing
powder, biofuel production, energy-efficient pumps
and substitution of chemicals with more environmentally friendly
solutions.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.ecoinnovation.dk/English/EU_Actions/Environmental_technolgy_EU_definition/ .
PENGELOLAAN LIMBAH
Environment technologies
PERMASALAHAN
•
Waste management is one of the most important environmental problem
of the world. Exist different technologies to apply to manage the waste that
human activities generate.
•
Best option to combat the wastes accumulation problems, is always the
reduce of generation wastes, then the reuse of wastes, and finally the
recycling of wastes. Sometimes is necessary the treatment and disposal
of wastes.
The Waste Management Continuum has two axes.
One is the horizontal stakeholder scale, ranging from municipalities and local
governments to the community. The other is the vertical technology scale
ranging from high tech/high energy disposal systems to low tech low energy
systems.
Diunduh dari: http://www.gdrc.org/uem/waste/continuum/continuum.html .
PENGELOLAAN LIMBAH
Environment technologies
IDENTIFIKASI DAN KLASIFIKASI
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Waste is identified and classified according Directive 2000/532/CE,
related with the source of waste.
Organization of the waste list is set by codes, giving a two-digit code
to type of industry or industrial processes that generate waste.
A four-digit code is associated to subindustrial sectors or
subprocesses from waste is generated.
Finally, each type of waste has a six-digit code.
WASTE MANAGEMENT
HIERARCHY
The waste management hierarchy is a
nationally and internationally accepted guide
for prioritising waste management practices
with the objective of achieving optimal
environmental outcomes. It sets out the
preferred order of waste management
practices, from most to least preferred.
The waste management hierarchy is one of
the guiding principles of the Zero Waste SA
Act 2004, and is regarded in South
Australia’s Waste Strategy 2011 – 2015 as a
key element for guiding waste management
practices in South Australia, while still
recognising the need for flexibility based on
local and regional economic, social and
environmental conditions.
Diunduh dari: http://www.zerowaste.sa.gov.au/About-Us/waste-managementhierarchy .
PENGELOLAAN LIMBAH
Environment technologies
TEKNIK-TEKNIK
The techniques used to manage wastes are of three types:
• Volume Reduction technologies (mechanical, physical and
chemical)
• Treatment and disposal of wastes technologies
(biodegradation, solidification, stabilization,..)
• Ultimate disposal of wastes
Clean Technologies
Trends in Waste Management
Because Waste Treatment and Disposal are No Longer Enough
Diunduh dari: http://chedric.hubpages.com/hub/Clean-Technologies .
PENGELOLAAN LIMBAH
Environment technologies
TEKNIK-TEKNIK
Volume reduction technologies
• Concentrating methods as
vacuum filtration, rotatory
drum pre coat-filter, pressure
filtration, centrifuge
dewatering thickeners.
• Size reduction methods, as
hammer mills, shredding
machines, crushers,
pulverisers and hoggers.
Treatment and disposal wastes
technologies
• Recycling wastes is the most
effective technology to
prevent the environmental
problems.
Diunduh dari: .
PENGELOLAAN LIMBAH
Environment technologies
TEKNIK-TEKNIK
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Physical methods of waste
treatment as primary
treatment, polishing,
secondary treatment,
disposal resource recovery
and discharge recycle.
Chemical treatment as: acid /
base neutralization,chemical
precipitation, electrolysis,
hydrolysis, chemical
extraction and leaching, ion
exchange
Photolytic reactions as a
technique to transform
hazardous wastes in arid
wastes with free photons of
ultraviolet radiation.
Thermal treatment methods
of incineration systems like
rotary-klin incineration, liquid
injection, fixed-hearth
incinerators and fluidized bed
incinerators.
PENGELOLAAN LIMBAH
Environment technologies
TEKNIK-TEKNIK
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Biodegradation wastes as the process to convert a by biological processes
an organic wastes in a inorganic wastes. Processes as biodegradability,
aerobic treatment and anaerobic treatment.
Land treatment and composting. Land treatment is the technique to modify
the characteristics of soil to treat the wastes inside this. And composting is
the technique to biodegrade the wastes introducing the wastes inside the
soil, keeping act the natural reactions of the same soil.
Biodegradation
A biodegradable substance is one that can be reduced to carbon dioxide and
water by microbes.
Diunduh dari:http://www.ied.edu.hk/biotech/eng/classrm/class_env2.html .
PENGELOLAAN LIMBAH
Environment technologies
TEKNIK-TEKNIK
Pembuangan akhir limbah (sampah)
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Landfilling as the technique that dispose the wastes in the land,other
techniques are: disposal aboveground, surface impoundment of liquids
and deep-well disposal of liquids
Incineration as a ultimate disposal of wastes when the ash of this
incineration result arid wastes.
Diunduh dari: http://blogs.opb.org/repblog/2010/07/29/talking-trash-the-rural-economy-ofgarbage/ .
PENGELOLAAN LIMBAH
Environment technologies
Tipe-tipe Limbah
The types of wastes are divided in:
• Limbah domestik
• Limbah Medis
• Limbah Berbahaya
• Limbah Industri
Municipal Waste Combustion in Texas
Space for landfills has been plentiful in the past, but is becoming harder to find
in large urban areas. Recycling programs have reduced the amount of matter
going into landfills, but combustion may become more viable in some urban
areas if landfill sites become scarce or if energy prices make combustion more
economically viable.
Diunduh dari: http://www.window.state.tx.us/specialrpt/energy/renewable/municipal.php.
PENGELOLAAN LIMBAH
Environment technologies
TIPE-TIPE LIMBAH
Limbah Domestik
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Determining waste generation. The most commonly used method is the
estimating the waste quantity is to weight the waste requiring disposal.
The second ,method is to determine the volume of waste which is being
generated and use known density factors to convert this into the
associated weight. And the third method is to determine the population of
the area and then multiply this by typical waste generation factors.
Reuse reduce and recycling these three methods are the most important
methods in strategic plans of waste management for municipalities.
Reduce Reuse Recycle
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle is one clever way to lessen the
amount of waste produced even at home. It is basically a
process of waste management.
REDUCE
Shop less, use less, reduce waste. Basically, that’s
the main idea on this. People just need to buy less
and use less to reduce the waste products.
REUSE
There are a lot of things at home that is when used
at the first time are still reusable for how many
more times.
RECYCLE
Aside from reusable stuff at home, the most
common things we can see and check at home are
the recyclable stuff. Instead of immediately
throwing the used materials at home, it would be
better to make use of them in other ways.
Diunduh dari: http://livethegreenlifetoday.com/tag/reuse/ .
PENGELOLAAN LIMBAH
Environment technologies
TIPE-TIPE LIMBAH
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Combustion is one of the most used technology to
eliminate waste. Can comprise at same time,
different types of incineration systems.
And finally landfilling is the historical method to
treat the wastes, but many countries have not
sufficient land to keep on involving.
Limbah Medis
• Packaging and storage, is an important factor of this
kind of waste, for the condition of infectious waste.
• Treatment and disposal of infectious waste with
processes as thermal, melting, shredding, grinding,
tearing or breaking.
Diunduh dari: .
PENGELOLAAN LIMBAH
Environment technologies
TIPE-TIPE LIMBAH
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Incineration, hospital waste incineration involves the
application of combustion processes under controlled
conditions to convert wastes infectious and pathological
material to inert mineral residues and gases. The
incineration systems are the same than other type of
wastes.
Microwaving, chemical disinfections processes, irradiation
processes and plasma systems are other kind of
techniques to treat the medical wastes.
PENGELOLAAN LIMBAH
Environment technologies
Pengolahan Limbah Berbahaya
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Physical methods as: separation, filtration, transition, distillation,
evaporation, precipitation, transfer, extraction, sorption, membrane
separations, reverse osmosis, hyper-and ultra filtration.
Chemical treatments as chemical precipitation, oxidation / reduction Ion
exchange, acid / base neutralization and chemical extraction and
leaching reduction.
Thermal methods as incineration, the same systems than before.
And biodegradability as a technique to convert the hazardous wastes
into a nonhazardous wastes.
. Biodegradation
A biodegradable substance is one that can be reduced to carbon
dioxide and water by microbes.
Diunduh dari: http://www.ied.edu.hk/biotech/eng/classrm/class_env2.html .
PENGELOLAAN LIMBAH
Environment technologies
LIMBAH INDUSTRI
The methods and techniques to manage the industrial wastes are
the same methods and techniques to manage wastes:
• Reduce, Reuse dan Recycling
• Medote Reduksi Limbah
• Metode Pengolahan Limbah
• Sistem Insenerasi
• Penimbunan di Lahan = Landfilling
Landfill Design
Diunduh dari: http://www.eco-web.com/edi/01779.html.
PENGELOLAAN LIMBAH
Environment technologies
SELECTING TECHNOLOGY
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Options for treatment techniques for the various types of waste, types treatment
equipment, treatment sites and various waste handling practices all need to be
carefully evaluated.
The selection of available options at a facility depends upon a number of factors
such as the nature of the waste, the quantity of waste generated, the availability
of equipment for treatment on site and of site, regulation constraints, and cost
considerations.
We recommend the opinion of environment engineers experts to decide which
technique apply in any case.
Improving the Waste Management
Hierarchy
“The Sustainability Hierarchy”
Mr. Cary Perket
President
The Envirobiz Group
An evolution in waste management
ideology is reflected in the Resource
Recovery Act of 1970. One aspect of
the evolution was the incorporation of
resource conservation into waste
management ideology as such it is one
of the earliest federal regulations
incorporating the ideology of the 3Rs. It
is also significant from a historical
perspective as the formal beginning of
federal efforts to address the special
wastes (e.g., hazardous waste) that
were not suitable for disposal in
sanitary landfills.
The Waste Management Hierarchy
represents an expansion of the 3Rs
ideology in that indicates a preference
for certain types of waste management.
Diunduh dari: http://www.envirobiz.com/sustainability.asp .
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
Environment technologies
STRATEGI PENGENDALIAN
A control strategy is a set of discrete and specific measures identified and
implemented to achieve reductions in air pollution. These measures may vary by
source type, such as stationary or mobile, as well as by the pollutant that is being
targeted. The purpose of these measures is to achieve the air quality standard or
goal. Costs and benefits are assessed in the development of the control strategy.
Control strategy development is the process of
assessing specific abatement measures,
management practices, or control technologies
to determine the best combination of
approaches to provide the emission reductions
necessary to achieve the air quality standard
or goal. Three primary considerations in
designing an effective control strategy are:
(1) Environmental: factors such as equipment
locations, ambient air quality conditions,
adequate utilities (i.e., water for scrubbers),
legal requirements, noise levels, and the
contribution of the control system as a
pollutant;
(2) Engineering: factors such as contaminant
characteristics (abrasiveness, toxicity, etc.),
gas stream characteristics, and performance
characteristics of the control system; and
(3) Economic: factors such as capital cost,
operating costs, equipment maintenance, and
the lifetime of the equipment. Air pollution
officials should also consider pollution
prevention which includes eliminating as much
of the pollution emissions as possible at the
source, substituting raw (and less toxic)
materials, considering alternative
manufacturing processes, and improving
process control measures.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.epa.gov/air/aqmportal/management/control_strategies.htm.
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
Environment technologies
Perlindungan Kualitas Udara
The main air pollutants discharged from a thermal plant are sulfur oxide
(SOx), nitrogen oxide (NOx), and soot and dust. We are making efforts to
control emissions through the fuel measures including the use of high-quality
fuel and the facility improvement measures including the installation of
denitrification facilities, electrostatic precipitators, and flue gas desulfurization
facilities, as well as through the complete combustion management while
seeking prevention of air pollution by implementing the operation measures
such as monitoring of emission sources.
Sarana Pengendalian Kualitas Udara
Diunduh dari: . http://www.tohoku-epco.co.jp/enviro/tea2006e/05/05a.html
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
Environment technologies
PERMASALAHAN
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Controlling the emission of pollutants from industrial and
domestic sources is important in protecting the quality of air. Air
pollutants can exist in the form of particulate matter or as gases.
Air cleaning devices have been reducing pollutant emissions
from various sources for many years.
Originally, air cleaning equipment was used only if the
contaminant was highly toxic or had some recovery value.
Tip-tip Udara Bersih
Your heating and cooling system is designed to make your home and
familycomfortable but if not properly maintained it could contribute to your
allergy problems and also higher energy bill which is at an all time high .
Change or clean filters once a month.
When using air conditioning, set
thermostat to 72-75 degrees.
When using the heating, set
thermostat to 68-70 degrees If
main ducts are equipped with
volume dampers (which are
located in the main supply duct
above air handler) regulate level
to direct most of cool air to top
level in summer; then in winter
leave all control handles in the
fully open position (hot air rises,
cold air falls). When using cooling,
close all vents located in the
basement (except cold air return).
Diunduh dari: . http://www.911ductcare.com/contact.html
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
Environment technologies
PERALATAN
Equipment used to control particulate emissions are:
• Gravity settlers (often referred to as settling
chambers)
• Mechanical collectors (cyclones)
• Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)
• Scrubber
• Filter Fabrik
• Sistem Hybrid
CEROBONG ASAP
Factories use static electricity to reduce pollution coming from their
smokestacks. They give the smoke an electric charge. When it passes by
electrodes of the opposite charge, most of the smoke particles cling to the
electrodes. This keeps the pollution from going out into the atmosphere.
How a smokestack
electrostatic precipitator
works
From BBC - Electrostatic
Precipitators
Diunduh dari: . http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/static_uses.htm
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
Environment technologies
PERALATAN
Pengendap Gravitasi = Gravity settler (Bilik
atau Ruang Pengendapan)
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Gravity settlers, or gravity settling chambers, are
used industrially for the removal of solid and liquid
waste materials from gaseous streams.
Advantages accounting for their use are simple
construction, low initial cost and maintenance, low
pressure losses, and simple disposal of waste
materials.
Kolektor Mekanik (cyclones)
•
Centrifugal separators, commonly referred to as
cyclones, are widely used in industry for the removal
of solid and liquid particles (or particulates) from gas
streams.
Diunduh dari: .
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
Environment technologies
PERALATAN
Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)
• They are satisfactory devices for removing small particles
from moving gas streams at high collection efficiencies.
They have been used almost universally in power plants for
removing fly ash from the gases prior to discharge.
• Two major types of high-voltage ESP configurations
currently used are tubular and plate. Tubular precipitators
consist of cylindrical collection tubes with discharge
electrodes located on the axis of the cylinder. Vast majority
of ESPs installed are of the plate type.
• Collected particles are usually removed by rapping.
Electrostatic
precipitator
Small particles are
statically charged
The electrically
charged metal plates
attract the particles,
removing them
Diunduh dari: . http://civil.engr.siu.edu/301I_Ray/he_air.htm
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
Environment technologies
PERALATAN
Scrubbers (venturi scrubbers)
1. Wet scrubbing involves the technique of bringing a
contaminated gas stream into intimate contact with a
liquid.
2. Wet scrubbers include all the various types of gas
absorption equipment.
3. The term "scrubber" will be restricted to those
systems which utilize a liquid, usually water, to
achieve or assist in the removal of particulate matter
from a carrier gas stream.
Wet scrubber
A caustic spray
neutralizes the
acidity
This produces a
sludge which must
be landfilled or
otherwise disposed
of
Diunduh dari: http://civil.engr.siu.edu/301I_Ray/he_air.htm
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
Environment technologies
PERALATAN
Filter Fabrik (bag houses)
• Filtration process may be conducted in many different types of
fabric filters.Differences may be related to:
– Type of fabric
– Cleaning mechanism
– Equipment
– Mode of operation
• Gases to be cleaned can be either "pushed" or "pulled" through the
bag house.
• In the pressure system (push through) the gases may enter through
the cleanout, hopper in the bottom or through the top of the bags.
• In the suction type (pull through) the dirty gases are usually forced
through the inside of the bag and exit through the outside.
Removal of Particulate
Pollutants
The bag house filter is
common for removal of
particulates
Its operating principle is
similar to a home vacuum
cleaner
Diunduh dari: . . http://civil.engr.siu.edu/301I_Ray/he_air.htm
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
Environment technologies
PERALATAN
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Hybrid systems are defined as those types of control devices that
involve combinations of control mechanisms-for example, fabric
filtration combined with electrostatic precipitation.
Four of the major hybrid systems found in practice today include:
– Wet electrostatic precipitators,
– Ionizing wet scrubbers,
– Dry scrubbers,
– Electrostatically augmented fabric filtration.
Modern electrostatic devices
and methods for exhaust gas
cleaning: A brief review
Anatol Jaworek, Andrzej Krupa,
Tadeusz Czech
Journal of Electrostatics. Volume
65, Issue 3, March 2007, Pages
133–155
Conventional electrostatic
precipitators (ESPs) have been
modernized over the last few
decades. In recent years, many
new methods of construction have
been proposed with the goal of
increasing cleaning efficiency,
particularly for particles in the
submicrometer size range. Adding
electrical forces to traditional filters
has also resulted in an increase in
their collection efficiency for
removing dust particles.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030438860600088X.
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
Teknik-TEKNIK
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Applicability of a given technique depends on the physical and chemical properties of
the pollutant and the exhaust stream.
More than one technique may be capable of controlling emissions from a given source
Techniques used to control gaseous emissions are:
Absorption
Adsorption
Combustion
Condensation
CS2-Condensation
The technology behind the condensation of carbon disulfide from highly concentrated waste
gas streams represents the most efficient and at the same time the most economic variant
for the recovery of CS2.
In the process specially developed for applications in the viscose industry, a mixture of
steam, CS2 and air, with a temperature of around 95°C, is sucked off from the fleece
forming unit (CS2 box). Most of the vapor is condensed in the vapor condenser by mixing
with warm water.
The actual condensation of CS2 takes place in the water jet apparatus which is loaded with
chill water. The gaseous phase is then separated from the liquid phase by means of an air
separator. The gaseous phase contains air and all the non-condensed gases whereas the
liquid phase consists of process water and condensed CS2. As a result of the higher density
of CS2 compared to water, the carbon disulfide precipitates in the settler and can be directly
led back to viscose fi ber production. The overfl ow (water) from the settler is cooled and
then led to the circuit water system of the water jet apparatus.
Diunduh dari: http://www.lenzing.com/en/engineering/products/environmental-technology/waste-airpurification/cs2-condensation.html .
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
Environment technologies
Penyerapan = Absorpsi
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Mass transfer operation in which a gas is dissolved in a liquid.
A contaminant (pollutant exhaust stream) contacts a liquid, and the
contaminant diffuses from the gas phase into the liquid phase.
The liquid most often used for absorption is water.
Reagents can be added to the absorbing water to increase the
removal efficiency of the system. Gas absorbers or wet scrubbers
are designed to provide good mixing of the gas and liquid phases.
The devices used for gas absorption are often the same as those
used in particulate emission scrubbing.
These include packed towers, plate towers, spray columns, and
venturi scrubbers.
ABSORPTION
Absorption processes use the solubility of sulfur dioxide in aqueous solutions to
remove it from the gas stream. Once sulfur dioxide has dissolved in solution to
form sulfurous acid (H2SO3), it reacts with oxidizers to form inorganic sulfites
and sulfates . This process prevents the dissolved sulfur dioxide from diffusing
out of solution and being re-emitted.
The most common
type of sulfur dioxide
absorber is the
limestone wet
scrubber.
Diunduh dari: http://www.epa.gov/apti/bces/module6/sulfur/control/control.htm .
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
Environment technologies
TEKNIK-TEKNIK
Penjerapan = Adsorption
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Mass transfer process that involves removing a gaseous
contaminant by adhering it to the surface of a solid.
It can be classified as physical or chemical. In physical adsorption, a
gas molecule adheres to the surface of the solid due to an imbalance
of natural forces (electron distribution).
In chemisorption, once the gas molecule adheres to the surface, it
reacts chemically with it.
The major distinction is that physical adsorption is readily reversible
whereas chemisorption is not.
Pengambilan CO2 dari Polusi dan Atmosfer
The scientists used a polymer
called polyethylenimine (PEI)
as the basis for adsorbing
carbon dioxide. Adsorption
occurrs when atoms stick to
a material's surface, as
against the absorption
process where atoms
permeate material. Nitrogen
in the polymer forms a link to
carbon when carbon dioxide
is present. When the
adsorber material is heated
to 100C, the link breaks
releasing the carbon allowing
for easy and relatively cheap
way to collect and
concentrate carbon dioxide.
Diunduh dari: http://takvera.blogspot.com/2012/01/scientific-breakthrough-remove-co2-from.html.
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
Environment technologies
TEKNIK-TEKNIK
Pembakaran = Combustion
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Combustion is defined as rapid, high-temperature gas-phase
oxidation.
Simply, the contaminant (a carbon-hydrogen substance) is burned
with air and converted to carbon dioxide and water vapor.
The operation of any combustion source is governed by the three T's
of combustion; temperature, turbulence, and time.
Combustion devices can be categorized as flares, thermal
incinerators, or catalytic incinerators
Incineration is the thermal destruction of waste. It is as old as throwing food
wastes on a wood fire, and in many developing nations, garbage is still routinely
burned in drums and boxes on city streets.
Injeksi Cairan.
The chemical industries
generate liquid wastes that
contain toxic organics. Typical
wastes from the agricultural
and pharmaceutical plants may
contain compounds such as
chlorinated benzenes, vinyl
chloride, toluene,
phosphorous, and
naphthalene. On-site liquid
injection incinerators are used
to destroy these wastes. Liquid
injection incinerators are
refractory-lined
Diunduh dari: http://www.pollutionissues.com/Ho-Li/Incineration.html.
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
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TEKNIK-TEKNIK
Pengembunan = Condensation
•
•
•
•
•
•
Process in which the volatile gases are removed from the contaminant stream
and changed into a liquid.
It is usually achieved by reducing the temperature of a vapor mixture until the
partial pressure of the condensable component equals its vapor pressure.
Requires low temperatures to liquefy most pure contaminant vapors.
It is affected by the composition of the contaminant gas stream.
Condensers are normally used in combination with primary control devices.
Condensers can be located upstream of (before) an incinerator, adsorber, or
absorber.
Polutan Gas – Kondensasi
Condensation is the process of converting a gas or vapor to liquid. Any gas can be reduced
to a liquid by lowering its temperature and/or increasing its pressure. The most common
approach is to reduce the temperature of the gas stream, since increasing the pressure of a
gas can be expensive. A simple example of the condensation process is droplets of water
forming on the outside of a glass of cold water. The cold temperature of the glass causes
water vapor from the surrounding air to pass into the liquid state on the surface of the
glass.
Condensers are widely used to recover valuable
products in a waste stream. Condensers are simple,
relatively inexpensive devices that normally use
water or air to cool and condense a vapor stream.
Condensers are typically used as pretreatment
devices. They can be used ahead of adsorbers,
absorbers, and incinerators to reduce the total gas
volume to be treated by more expensive control
equipment. Condensers used for pollution control are
contact condensers and surface condensers. In a
contact condenser, the gas comes into contact
with cold liquid. In a surface condenser, the gas
contacts a cooled surface in which cooled liquid or
gas is circulated, such as the outside of the tube.
Removal efficiencies of condensers typically range
from 50 percent to more than 95 percent, depending
on design and applications.
Diunduh dari: http://www.epa.gov/apti/course422/ce6b3.html.
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
Environment technologies
•
FAKTOR-FAKTOR
There are a number of factors to be considered
prior to selecting a particular piece of air
pollution control hardware.
Economic
Environ
mental
Engineering
Diunduh dari: .
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
Environment technologies
FAKTOR LINGKUNGAN
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lokasi Peralatan
Ruang yang tersedia
Kondisi Ambien
Availability of adequate utilities (i.e., power, water, etc.) and
ancillary system facilities (i.e., waste treatment and
disposal, etc.)
Maximum allowable emissions (air regulations)
Pertimbangan Estetika
Contribution of air pollution control system to wastewater
and solid waste
Contribution of air pollution control system to plant noise
levels
Environ
mental
Diunduh dari: .
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
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FAKTOR-FAKTOR EKONOMI
•
•
•
Biaya Kapital (equipment, installation, engineering, etc.)
Biaya Operasional (utilities, maintenance, etc.)
Masa Pakai Peraltaan dan Nilai Penyusutan
Economic
Diunduh dari: .
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
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FAKTOR-FAKTOR KETEKNIKAN
•
•
•
Contaminant characteristics (i.e., physical and chemical
properties, concentration, particulate shape and size)
Gas stream characteristics (i.e., volume flow rate,
temperature, pressure, humidity, composition, viscosity,
density, reactivity, combustibility, corrosivity, toxicity, etc.)
Design and performance characteristics of the particular
control system(i.e., size and weight, fractional efficiency
curves, etc)
Engineering
Diunduh dari: .
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
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MEMILIH TEKNOLOGI
•
•
•
Final choice in equipment selection is usually dictated by that equipment
capable of achieving compliance with regulatory codes at the lowest
uniform annual cost (amortized capital investment plus operation and
maintenance costs).
In order to compare specific control equipment alternatives, knowledge of
the particular application and site is essentials.
A preliminary screening, however, may be performed by reviewing the
advantages and disadvantages of each type of air pollution control
equipment.
AIR QUALITY PRESERVATION MEASURES
The main air pollutants discharged from a thermal plant are sulfur oxide (SOx),
nitrogen oxide (NOx), and soot and dust. We are making efforts to control
emissions through the fuel measures including the use of high-quality fuel and
the facility improvement measures including the installation of denitrification
facilities, electrostatic precipitators, and flue gas desulfurization facilities, as well
as through the complete combustion management while seeking prevention of air
pollution by implementing the operation measures such as monitoring of emission
sources.
As a result of these efforts, the emission intensity in FY2005 amounted to 0.31
g/kWh for SOx and 0.36 g/kWh for NOx, respectively, achieving the world's toplevel actual results.
Outline of Air Pollution Control Measures
Diunduh dari: . http://www.tohoku-epco.co.jp/enviro/tea2006e/05/05a.html
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
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Wastewater treatment
Conventional wastewater treatment consists of a combination of physical,
chemical, and biological processes and operations to remove solids, organic
matter and, sometimes, nutrients from wastewater. General terms used to
describe different degrees of treatment, in order of increasing treatment
level, are preliminary, primary, secondary, and tertiary and/or advanced
wastewater treatment. In some countries, disinfection to remove pathogens
sometimes follows the last treatment step.
. The principal objective of wastewater treatment is generally to allow human and
industrial effluents to be disposed of without danger to human health or
unacceptable damage to the natural environment. Irrigation with wastewater is both
disposal and utilization and indeed is an effective form of wastewater disposal (as in
slow-rate land treatment).
Diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm.
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
Environment technologies
Lingkup Kajian
• Wastewater
treatment
principles
• Wastewater
treatment plants
• Primary treatment
• Secondary
treatment
• Tertiary treatment
Diunduh dari: .
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PERMASALAHAN
•
•
Basic objective of the field of water quality engineering is the
determination of the environmental controls that must be instituted to
achieve a specific environmental quality objective
Role of the water quality engineer and scientist is to analyze water quality
problems by dividing the problem into its principal components:
– Inputs - discharge of residue into the environment from man' s and
nature's activities.
– Reactions and physical transport - chemical and biological
transformations and water movement that result in different levels of
water quality at different locations in time in the aquatic ecosystem.
– Output - the resulting concentration of a substance, at a particular
location in the water body during a particular time of the year or day
EFFLUENT STORAGE
Although not considered a step in the treatment process, a storage facility
is, in most cases, a critical link between the wastewater treatment plant
and the irrigation system. Storage is needed for the following reasons:
i.
To equalize daily variations in flow from the treatment plant and to
store excess when average wastwater flow exceeds irrigation
demands; includes winter storage.
ii. To meet peak irrigation demands in excess of the average wastewater
flow.
iii. To minimize the effects of disruptions in the operations of the
treatment plant and irrigation system. Storage is used to provide
insurance against the possibility of unsuitable reclaimed wastewater
entering the irrigation system and to provide additional time to
resolve temporary water quality problems.
Diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm.
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PERMASALAHAN
•
•
•
There are several points at which the water quality in a system can be
controlled.
The initial concentration at the outfall can be controlled by:
– Reducing the effluent concentration of the waste input
– Reducing the upstream concentration and effluent volume
– Increasing the upstream flow by low flow augmentation
The choice of the mix of the above controls involves issues of:
– The costs of the controls - Iocally, regionally, and nationally.
– The expected benefits of water quality in water use.
– The technological bounds (e.g., available storage for low flow
augmentation) on the controls.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VARIOUS SEWAGE TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Criteria
Package
plant
Activated
sludge
plant
Extended Biological Oxidation
aeration
filter
ditch
activated
sludge
Aerated
lagoon
Waste
stabilizatio
n pond
system
Plant
BOD removal
performa
FC removal
nce
SS removal
Helminth
removal
F
F
F
F
G
G
G
P
F
P
P
G
F
F
G
P
P
G
P
F
G
F
G
F
F
G
F
G
Virus removal
P
F
P
P
F
G
G
P (poor)
P
P
P
F
F
G
P
P
P
F
F
P
G
Land
requirement
G (good)
G
G
G
G
F
P
Maintenance
costs
P
P
P
F
P
P
G
Energy demand
P
P
P
F
P
P
G
Sludge removal
costs
P
F (fair)
F
F
P
F
G
Economi Simple and
c factors cheap
construction
Simple
operation
Diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm .
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
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PRINSIP-PRINSIP
PENGOLAHAN AIR LIMBAH
•
•
•
•
If untreated wastewater is
allowed to accumulate, the
decomposition of the organic
materials it contains can lead to
the production of offensive
odors and gases.
Untreated wastewater contains
numerous
pathogenic
microorganisms, released from
the human intestinal system.
It contains nutrients which can
stimulate the growth of aquatic
life, and it may also contain
toxic compounds.
Immediate removal from its
sources, followed by treatment
and disposal are the priorities
when managing wastewater.
Diunduh dari: .
Removal
Treatment
Disposal
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
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UNIT PENGOLAHAN AIR LIMBAH
•
•
Purpose of any ww treatment plant is to convert the components in raw
wastewater, with its inherent characteristics, into a relatively harmless final
effluent for discharge to a receiving body of water and to safely dispose of the
solids (sludge) produced in the process.
Wastewater treatment plant must satisfy these conditions :
– requirements for aesthetics and minimization of obnoxious odors at
treatment and disposal
– to prevent contamination of water supplies from physical, chemical, and
biological agents;
– to prevent destruction of fish, shellfish, and other aquatic life;
– to protect against the spread of disease from crops grown on sewage
irrigation or sludge disposal;
– to encourage other beneficial uses of effluent.
FACULTATIVE PONDS
The effluent from anaerobic ponds will require some form of aerobic treatment before
discharge or use and facultative ponds will often be more appropriate than conventional forms
of secondary biological treatment for application in developing countries. Primary facultative
ponds will be designed for the treatment of weaker wastes and in sensitive locations where
anaerobic pond odours would be unacceptable. Solids in the influent to a facultative pond and
excess biomass produced in the pond will settle out forming a sludge layer at the bottom.
Energy flows in facultative stabilization ponds (Marais 1970) Diunduh dari:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm .
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
UNIT PENGOLAHAN AIR LIMBAH
•
•
•
Wastewater treatment plants utilize a number of individual or unit
operations and processes to achieve the desired degree of treatment.
Collective treatment schematic is called a flow scheme, a flow diagram, a
flow sheet, a process train, or a flow schematic.
Unit operations and processes are grouped together to provide what is
known as primary, secondary, and tertiary (or advanced) treatment.
Primary
(FISIKA)
Secondary
(KIMIA)
Tertiary
(BIOLOGI)
Ways of Wastewater Treatment
Posted by flavio on May 21, 2012 in News
Wastewater treatment is a process through which wastewater and household
sewage is made free from the contaminants and pollutants existing in it. It is
disposed of from domestic/residential settlements as well as industrial
establishments and takes the form of liquid waste from bathrooms, kitchens,
sinks, washing machines and industrial waste from factories etc.
Diunduh dari: http://www.articlesweb.org/news/ways-of-wastewater-treatment.
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
PENGOLAHAN PRIMER
•
•
•
Treatment methods in which the application
of physical forces predominate are known
as physical unit operations.
These were the first methods to be used for
wastewater treatment.
Screening, mixing, flocculation,
sedimentation, flotation, and filtration are
typical unit operations for primary
treatment processes.
Primary
Treatment
WASTE MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing (waste treatment), recycling or
disposal of waste materials, usually ones produced by human activity, in an effort to reduce
their effect on human health or local aesthetics or amenity. A sub-focus in recent decades
has been to reduce waste materials’ effect on the natural world and the environment and to
recover resources from them.
Waste management can involve solid, liquid or gaseous substances with different methods
and fields of expertise for each. Waste management practices differ for developed and
developing
There are a number of concepts about waste management, which vary in their usage
between countries or regions. The waste hierarchy (ie reduce, reuse and recycle) classifies
waste management strategies according to their desirability. The waste hierarchy has taken
many forms, but the basic concept has remained the cornerstone of most waste
minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical
benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.defence.gov.au/jlc/Documents/DSCC/ADF%20Health%20Manual%20Vol%2020,%20p
art8,%20chp1.pdf .
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
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PENGOLAHAN PRIMER
Klarifikasi (Sedimentasi)
•
•
•
•
Process of separating the settleable solids from the liquid
Some treatment systems employing two or more stages of treatment and
clarification, the terms primary, secondary, and final clarification are used.
The actual physical sizing of the clarifier (depth, surface area, inlet
structure, etc.) is highly dependent upon the quantity and composition of
the flow.
Clarification units can be either circular or rectangular and are normally
designed to operate on a continuous flow-through basis:
– circular units are generally called clarifiers,
– whereas rectangular units are commonly referred to as
sedimentation tanks.
PRIMARY TREATMENT
The objective of primary treatment is the removal of settleable organic and
inorganic solids by sedimentation, and the removal of materials that will float
(scum) by skimming. Approximately 25 to 50% of the incoming biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD5), 50 to 70% of the total suspended solids (SS), and
65% of the oil and grease are removed during primary treatment. Some
organic nitrogen, organic phosphorus, and heavy metals associated with solids
are also removed during primary sedimentation but colloidal and dissolved
constituents are not affected. The effluent from primary sedimentation units is
referred to as primary effluent.
(diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm)
Diunduh dari: .
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PENGOLAHAN PRIMER
Flotasi = Flotation
•
•
•
•
Separates these particles by their density by the introduction of air
into the system.
Fine bubbles adhere to, or are absorbed by, the solids, which are
then lifted to the surface.
Flotation separator tanks can be either rectangular or circular in
shape and constructed of either concrete or steel
It is an appropriate technology for treating suspended solids and oil
and grease in industrial waters. Process will achieve 40-65%
suspended solids removal and 60% of oil and grease removal.
. CFS Process
"Combination Flotation/Sedimentation" process recognizes that most
wastewater contains fines and heavier material and is designed to remove
sludge from the top and bottom while extracting the cleaned water from the
center. Induced air accelerates the separation and polymers are used to help
accumulate the sludges for a faster, continuous, and simple to operate
wastewater treatment system.
Diunduh dari: http://www.wastewater-recycling.com/Continuous%20Systems.html.
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SEPARASI MINYAK-AIR
•
•
•
•
•
In practically all manufacturing industries, oil and grease can be found in
a plant's wastewater
The configuration of the separator is that of a flow-through tank. The
basic principle by which oil-water separators work is the differential
between the specific gravities of water and the oils to be removed.
Major advantage of oil-water separators is their ability to treat wastewater
which is heavily laden with oil compounds.
They represent a very simple treatment operation which minimizes
personnel requirements; its operating costs are minimized.
It results in a more "pure" oil which can make recycling
much easier.
Horizontal Three Phase Separator
The fluid enters the separator and hits an inlet diverter. This sudden change in momentum
does the initial gross separation of liquid and vapor as discussed in Two Phase Separator. In
most designs, the inlet diverter contains a downcomer that directs the liquid flow below the
oil/water interface. This forces the inlet mixture of oil and water to mix with the water
continuous phase in the bottom of the vessel and rise through the oil/water interface. This
process is called “water-washing,” and it promotes the coalescence of water droplets which
are entrained in the oil
continuous phase. The inlet diverter assures that little gas is carried with the liquid, and the
water wash assures that the liquid does not fall on top of the gas/oil or oil/water interface,
mixing the liquid retained in the vessel and making control of the oil/water interface
difficult.
Diunduh dari: http://www.separation-process.com/horizontal-three-phase-separator-part-1.html .
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PENGOLAHAN SEKUNDER
•
•
Treatment methods in which the removal or conversion of
contaminants is brought about by the addition of chemicals or by
other chemical reactions are known as chemical unit processes.
Precipitation, gas transfer, adsorption, and disinfections are the
most common examples used in secondary wastewater treatment.
Secondary
Treatment
SECONDARY TREATMENT
The objective of secondary treatment is the further treatment of the effluent from
primary treatment to remove the residual organics and suspended solids. In most
cases, secondary treatment follows primary treatment and involves the removal
of biodegradable dissolved and colloidal organic matter using aerobic biological
treatment processes. Aerobic biological treatment (see Box) is performed in the
presence of oxygen by aerobic microorganisms (principally bacteria) that
metabolize the organic matter in the wastewater, thereby producing more
microorganisms and inorganic end-products (principally CO2, NH3, and H2O).
Several aerobic biological processes are used for secondary treatment differing
primarily in the manner in which oxygen is supplied to the microorganisms and in
the rate at which organisms metabolize the organic matter.
High-rate biological processes are characterized by relatively small reactor
volumes and high concentrations of microorganisms compared with low rate
processes. Consequently, the growth rate of new organisms is much greater in
high-rate systems because of the well controlled environment. The
microorganisms must be separated from the treated wastewater by sedimentation
to produce clarified secondary effluent. The sedimentation tanks used in
secondary treatment, often referred to as secondary clarifiers, operate in the
same basic manner as the primary clarifiers described previously. The biological
solids removed during secondary sedimentation, called secondary or biological
sludge, are normally combined with primary sludge for sludge processing.
Diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm.
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
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PENGOLAHAN SEKUNDER: COAGULATION PRECIPITATION
•
•
•
•
Involves two discrete steps.
Rapid mixing is employed to ensure that the chemicals are thoroughly
dispersed
Next, the wastewater undergoes flocculation which provides for particle
contact, so that the particles can agglomerate to a size large enough for
removal.
Finally precipitation occurs, that is really the same as settling.
Coagulation and Flocculation
The primary purpose of the coagulation and flocculation is to destabilize the
charged colloidal particles in water and make them to settle so as to remove
turbidity from the water. In addition to removing turbidity from the water,
coagulation and flocculation process removes many bacteria which are
suspended in the water and can be used to remove color from the water.
Colloids have a sufficiently small mass that collusion with molecular size
particles in water will cause constant movement of the colloids. The
phenomenon of constant random movement of colloids is known as Brownian
motion. The combination of positive and negative charge, results in a neutral,
or lack of charge. As a result, the particles no longer repel each other. When
enough particles have joined together, they become floc and will settle out of
the water.
Proses
Koagolasi
Diunduh dari: http://www.thewatertreatments.com/wastewater-sewage-treatment/coagulationflocculation-process/ .
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PENGOLAHAN SEKUNDER: NETRALISASI
Coagulation-precipitation is capable of removing from industrial
wastewater pollutants such as BOD, COD, and TSS. It can remove
additional pollutants such as phosphorus, nitrogen compounds,
and metals. This technology is attractive to industry because a high
degree of classification and toxic pollutants removal can be
combined in one treatment process.
Neutralization
•
Involves adding an acid or a base to a wastewater to offset or
neutralize the effects of its counterpart in the wastewater flow,
namely, adding acids to alkaline wastewaters and bases to acidic
wastewaters.
CHEMISTRY OF COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
The chemistry of coagulation and flocculation is primarily based on electricity.
Electricity is the behavior of negatively and positively charged particles due to
their attraction and repulsion. Like charges (two negatively charged particles
or two positively charged particles) repel each other while opposite charges (a
positively charged particle and a negatively charged particle) attract. Most
particles dissolved in water have negative charge, so they tend to repel each
other. As a result, they stay dispersed and dissolved or Coagulation process
colloidal in the water. Addition of positively charged particles in the coagulation
process is aimed to destabilizing the colloids. So treatment involving
coagulation and flocculation is typical of surface water.
The purpose of addition of coagulant chemicals is to neutralize the negative
charges on the colloidal particles to prevent those particles from repelling each
other. Coagulants due to their positive charge attract negatively charged
particles in the water.
Coagulation is a unit process of addition of coagulant chemicals to water and
rapid mixing so as to neutralize the electrical charges of the colloidal particles
in the water, and allow them to come closer and form fine clumps or micro
flocs.
Diunduh dari: http://www.thewatertreatments.com/wastewater-sewage-treatment/coagulationflocculation-process/.
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
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PENGOLAHAN SEKUNDER: NETRALISASI
•
•
•
The most important considerations in neutralization treatment are
the wastewater constituents so that the proper neutralizing
chemicals are used, and proper monitoring to ensure that the
required quantities of these chemicals are used and that the effluent
is in fact neutralized.
For acid waste streams, lime, soda ash, and caustic soda are the
most common base chemicals used
In alkaline waste streams, sulfuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acid are
generally used for neutralization
Lime neutralization in a high density sludge (HDS) process configuration is
the industry standard for impacted mine water neutralization for of the
following reasons:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Relative low cost of lime
Efficient use of lime
High density of waste sludge requiring a smaller site for disposal
Scale control on treatment plant structures, pipelines, equipment, and instrumentation
Good solids/water separation
Robust process, able to treat variable flows and acidity/metals loadings
Basic HDS Process Configuration
Diunduh dari: http://www.gardguide.com/index.php/Chapter_7 .
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TERTIARY TREATMENT
•
•
•
•
Treatment methods in which the removal of contaminants is brought
about by biological activity are known as biological unit processes.
Biological treatment is used primarily to remove the biodegradable
organic substances (colloidal or dissolved) in wastewater.
Basically these substances are converted into gases that can escape
to the atmosphere or into biological cell tissue that can be removed
by settling.
Designed to remove those constituents that are not adequately
removed in the secondary treatment plants, such as N, P, and other
soluble organic and inorganic compounds.
Tertiary
Treatment
TERTIARY AND/OR ADVANCED TREATMENT
Tertiary and/or advanced wastewater treatment is employed when specific
wastewater constituents which cannot be removed by secondary treatment must
be removed. The individual treatment processes are necessary to remove
nitrogen, phosphorus, additional suspended solids, refractory organics, heavy
metals and dissolved solids. Because advanced treatment usually follows high-rate
secondary treatment, it is sometimes referred to as tertiary treatment.
However, advanced treatment processes are sometimes combined with primary or
secondary treatment (e.g., chemical addition to primary clarifiers or aeration
basins to remove phosphorus) or used in place of secondary treatment (e.g.,
overland flow treatment of primary effluent).
Diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm .
A comparative evaluation of money-based and energy-based
cost–benefit analyses of tertiary municipal wastewater
treatment using forested wetlands vs. sand filtration in
Louisiana
Jae-Young Ko, John W Day, Robert R Lane, Jason N Day
Ecological Economics. Volume 49, Issue 3, 1 July 2004, Pages 331–347
Forested wetlands have been used to provide advanced secondary and
tertiary treatment for municipal wastewater for a number of cities in southern
Louisiana.
Wetland assimilation provides the same services as conventional methods in
improving wastewater quality, while having positive impacts on wetlands.
Suspended solids and nutrients in wastewater increase net primary
productivity (NPP), which leads to increased organic soil formation. This leads
to increased elevation that offsets subsidence, a major cause of coastal
wetland loss in Louisiana. The City of Breaux Bridge, LA, has discharged
secondarily treated municipal wastewater into a forested wetland since 1950,
and wetland assimilation was permitted by the Louisiana Department of
Environmental Quality and the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA)
in 1997.
We compared benefits and costs of utilizing forested wetlands and
conventional sand treatment using money-based and energy-based cost–
benefit analyses (CBA). The wetland method had a higher benefit–cost ratio
than conventional treatment by 6.0 times based on dollar-based CBA, and by
21.7 times from the energy analysis. Methodologically, dollar-based CBA is a
market price-based assessment, liming to an anthropocentric framework,
while embodied energy analysis accounts for monetary and nonmonetary
values such as carbon sequestration by wetlands, which contributes a more
complete assessment of the interaction between the natural environment and
the human economy.
Wetlands treat more wastewater per unit of energy and with less financial
cost than conventional methods, because the wetland method utilizes natural
energies such as sunlight, wind and rain, while conventional treatment
methods depend on imported nonrenewable energies and materials such as
chemicals and electricity and require additional capital investment. Increasing
application of natural energies is becoming more important with depleting
fossil fuels. Further, wastewater addition increases NPP and wetland
elevation, which has potential for wetland mitigation credit.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921800904000631
A comparative evaluation of money-based and energy-based cost–benefit
analyses of tertiary municipal wastewater treatment using forested
wetlands vs. sand filtration in Louisiana
Jae-Young Ko, John W Day, Robert R Lane, Jason N Day
Ecological Economics. Volume 49, Issue 3, 1 July 2004, Pages 331–347
Diagram of the wetland treatment method. Wetlands remove nutrients and retain
suspended solids by physical settling, chemical precipitation, adsorption, and biological
metabolism. The processes are controlled by natural energies such as sunlight, wind, and
rain. Permanent nutrient pathways are burial, vegetation uptake, and denitrification.
A diagram of the sand filtration method (modified from Hernandez, 1978, p. 8, fig. 1).
Polymer is added to increase flocculation of suspended solids for increased efficiency of
sedimentation and filtration. The process is operated by electrical energy.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921800904000631
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TERTIARY TREATMENT
•
•
Many of these constituents must be removed to meet
stringent water quality standards and to allow reuse of the
effluent for municipal, industrial, irrigation, recreation, and
other water needs.
The most commonly used advanced wastewater treatment
processes are among other:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Chemical precipitation of phosphorus,
Nitrification and Denitrification,
Ammonia stripping,
Breakpoint chlorination,
Filtration,
Carbon adsorption,
Ion exchange
. DISINFECTION
Disinfection normally involves the injection of a chlorine solution at the head
end of a chlorine contact basin. The chlorine dosage depends upon the
strength of the wastewater and other factors, but dosages of 5 to 15 mg/l are
common.
Ozone and ultra violet (uv) irradiation can also be used for disinfection but
these methods of disinfection are not in common use. Chlorine contact basins
are usually rectangular channels, with baffles to prevent short-circuiting,
designed to provide a contact time of about 30 minutes. However, to meet
advanced wastewater treatment requirements, a chlorine contact time of as
long as 120 minutes is sometimes required for specific irrigation uses of
reclaimed wastewater.
The bactericidal effects of chlorine and other disinfectants are dependent upon
pH, contact time, organic content, and effluent temperature.
Diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm .
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
Environment technologies
TERTIARY TREATMENT
Aerobic Suspended Growth Processes
(Activated Sludge)
•
•
•
Process in which the biological growth products (microorganisms) are
kept in suspension in a liquid medium consisting of entrapped and
suspended colloidal and dissolved organic and inorganic materials.
It uses metabolic reactions of the microorganisms to attain an
acceptable effluent quality by removing these substances exerting an
oxygen demand.
In the suspended growth processes, wastewater enters a reactor basin,
concretesteel-earthen tank(s) where microorganisms are brought into
contact with the organic components of the wastewater by some type of
mixing device.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE - LUMPUR AKTIF
In the activated sludge process, the dispersed-growth reactor is an aeration
tank or basin containing a suspension of the wastewater and microorganisms,
the mixed liquor. The contents of the aeration tank are mixed vigorously by
aeration devices which also supply oxygen to the biological suspension .
Aeration devices commonly used include submerged diffusers that release
compressed air and mechanical surface aerators that introduce air by agitating
the liquid surface. Hydraulic retention time in the aeration tanks usually ranges
from 3 to 8 hours but can be higher with high BOD5 wastewaters.
Following the aeration step, the microorganisms are separated from the liquid
by sedimentation and the clarified liquid is secondary effluent. A portion of the
biological sludge is recycled to the aeration basin to maintain a high mixedliquor suspended solids (MLSS) level. The remainder is removed from the
process and sent to sludge processing to maintain a relatively constant
concentration of microorganisms in the system.
Several variations of the basic activated sludge process, such as extended
aeration and oxidation ditches, are in common use, but the principles are
similar.
Diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm.
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
Environment technologies
TERTIARY TREATMENT
Aerobic Lagoons (Stabilization Ponds)
•
•
Large, shallow earthen basins that are used for wastewater treatment
by utilizing natural processes involving both algae and bacteria. The
objective is microbial conversion of organic wastes into algae. Aerobic
conditions prevail throughout the process.
In aerobic photosynthesis, the oxygen produced by the algae through
the process of photosynthesis is used by the bacteria in the
biochemical oxidation and degradation of organic waste. Carbon
dioxide, ammonia, phosphate, and other nutrients released in the
biochemical oxidation reactions are, in turn, used by the algae,
forming a cyclic-symbiotic relationship.
WASTEWATER
STABILIZATION
PONDS
A recent World Bank Report
(Shuval et al. 1986) came out
strongly in favour of
stabilization ponds as the
most suitable wastewater
treatment system for effluent
use in agriculture. Stabilization
ponds are the preferred
wastewater treatment process
in developing countries, where
land is often available at
reasonable opportunity cost
and skilled labour is in short
supply.
DIUNDUH DARI:
http://www.Fao.Org/docrep/t0551e
/t0551e05.Htm
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
Environment technologies
TERTIARY TREATMENT
•
Aerobic lagoons are used for treatment of weak industrial
wastewater containing negligible amounts of toxic and for
non-biodegradable substances.
Anaerobic Lagoon
•
•
Earthen ponds built with a small surface area and a deep liquid
depth of 3-7 m. They are anaerobic throughout their depth, except
for an extremely shallow surface zone.
Raw wastewater enters near the bottom of the lagoon (often at the
center) and mixes with the active microbial mass in the sludge
blanket.
EFFLUENT STORAGE
Although not considered a step in the treatment process, a storage facility is,
in most cases, a critical link between the wastewater treatment plant and the
irrigation system. Storage is needed for the following reasons:
1.
2.
3.
To equalize daily variations in flow from the treatment plant and to store
excess when average wastwater flow exceeds irrigation demands; includes
winter storage.
To meet peak irrigation demands in excess of the average wastewater
flow.
To minimize the effects of disruptions in the operations of the treatment
plant and irrigation system.
Storage is used to provide insurance against the possibility of unsuitable
reclaimed wastewater entering the irrigation system and to provide additional
time to resolve temporary water quality problems.
Diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm.
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
Environment technologies
TERTIARY TREATMENT
•
•
Discharge is located near one of the sides and submerged
below the liquid surface. Excess undigested grease floats
to the top. Excess sludge is washed out with the effluent.
Anaerobic lagoons are effective prior to aerobic treatment
of high-strength organic wastewater that also contains a
high concentration of solids. BOD removal efficiencies of
up to 85% are possible.
MACROPHYTE TREATMENT
Maturation ponds which incorporate floating, submerged or emergent aquatic
plant species are termed macrophyte ponds and these have been used in
recent years for upgrading effluents from stabilization ponds. Macrophytes
take up large amounts of inorganic nutrients (especially N and P) and heavy
metals (such as Cd, Cu, Hg and Zn) as a consequnce of the growth
requirements and decrease the concentration of algal cells through light
shading by the leaf canopy and, possibly, adherence to gelatinous biomass
which grows on the roots.
Floating macrophyte systems utilizing water hyacinth and receiving primary
sewage effluent in Florida have achieved secondary treatment effluent quality
with a 6 day hydraulic retention time, water depth of 60 cm and hydraulic
loading 1860 m3/ha d (Reddy and Debusk 1987). The same authors suggested
that similar results had also been observed for artificial wetlands using
emergent macrophytes.
In Europe, the land area considered to be necessary for treatment of
preliminary-treated sewage is estimated at 2-5 m2 per population equivalent to
achieve a secondary effluent quality (Cooper et al. 1988).
Diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm .
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
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FLOATING AQUATIC MACROPHYTE SYSTEMS
Floating macrophyte species, with their large root systems, are very
efficient at nutrient stripping. Although several genera have been
used in pilot schemes, including Salvinia, Spirodella, Lemna and
Eichornia (O'Brien 1981), Eichornia crassipes (water hyacinth) has
been studied in much greater detail. In tropical regions, water
hyacinth doubles in mass about every 6 days and a macrophyte
pond can produce more than 250 kg/ha d (dry weight).
Nitrogen and phosphorus reductions up to 80% and 50% have been
achieved. In Tamil Nadu, India, studies have indicated that the
coontail, Ceratophyllum demersum, a submerged macrophyte, is
very efficient at removing ammonia (97%) and phosphorus (96%)
from raw sewage and also removes 95% of the BOD5. It has a lower
growth rate than Eichornia crassipes, which allows less frequent
harvesting.
In such macrophyte pond systems, apart from any physical removal
processes which might occur (especially sedimentation) the aquatic
vascular plants serve as living substrates for microbial activity, which
removes BOD and nitrogen, and achieves reductions in phosphorus,
heavy metals and some organics through plant uptake.
The basic function of the macrophytes in the latter mechanism is to
assimilate, concentrate and store contaminants on a short-term
basis. Subsequent harvest of the plant biomass results in permanent
removal of stored contaminents from the pond treatment system.
Diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm .
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
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EMERGENT MACROPHYTE TREATMENT SYSTEMS
In recent years, natural and artificial wetlands and marshes have
been used to treat raw sewage and partially-treated effluents.
Natural wetlands are usually unmanaged, whereas artificial systems
are specially designed to maximize performance by providing the
optimum conditions for emergent macrophyte growth. The key
features of such reed bed treatment systems are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Rhizomes of the reeds grow vertically and horizontally in the soil or gravel
bed, opening up 'hydraulic pathways'.
Wastewater BOD and nitrogen are removed by bacterial activity; aerobic
treatment takes place in the rhizosphere, with anoxic and anaerobic
treatment taking place in the surrounding soil.
Oxygen passes from the atmosphere to the rhizosphere via the leaves and
stems of the reeds through the hollow rhizomes and out through the
roots.
Suspended solids in the sewage are aerobically composted in the aboveground layer of vegetation formed from dead leaves and stems.
Nutrients and heavy metals are removed by plant uptake.
The growth rate and pollutant assimilative capacity of emergent
macrophytes such as Phragmites communis and Scirpus lacstris are
limited by the culture system, wastewater loading rate, plant density,
climate and management factors.
More than 50 percent of the nutrients were stored in below-ground
portions of the plants, tissues difficult to harvest to achieve effective
nutrient removal. However, because emergent macrophytes have more
supportive tissue than floating macrophytes, they might have greater
potential for storing the nutrients over a longer period. Consequently,
frequent harvesting might not be so necessary to achieve maximum
nutrient removal although harvesting above-ground biomass once a year
should improve overall nutrient removal efficiency.
Diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm .
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
Environment technologies
GROWTH AND NUTRIENT (N & P) CONTENTS OF SELECTED
MACROPHYTES
Source: Reddy and De Busk (1987)
Biomass
Standing crop
Growth rates
t (dw) ha-1
FLOATING MACROPHYTES:
Eichhornia
20.0-24.0
crasspipes (water
hyacinth)
Tissue composition
N
P
t ha-1 yr-1
--- g kg-1 ---
60-110
10-40
1.4-12.0
Pistia stratiotes
(water lettuce)
6.0-10.5
50-80
12-40
1.5-11.5
Hydrocotyle spp.
(pennywort)
7.0-11.0
30-60
15-45
2.0-12.5
Alternanthera spp.
(alligator weed)
18.0
78
15-35
2.0-9.0
Lemna spp.
(duckweed)
Salvinia spp.
1.3
6-26
25
4.0-15.0
2.4-3.2
9-45
EMERGENT MACROPHYTES:
Typha (cattail)
4.3-22.5
8-61
5-24
0.5-4.0
1.8-9.0
Juncus (rush)
Scirpus (bulrush)
22.0
53
15
8-27
2.0
1.0-3.0
Phragmites (reed)
6.0-35.0
10-60
18-21
2.0-3.0
Eleocharis (spike
rush)
Saururus cernuus
(lizardis tail)
8.8
26
9-18
1.0-3.0
4.5-22.5
-
15-25
1.0-5.0
Diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm.
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
Environment technologies
NUTRIENT FILM TECHNIQUE
The nutrient film technique (NFT) is a modification of the hydroponic
plant growth system in which plants are grown directly on an
impermeable surface to which a thin film of wastewater is
continuously applied.
Root production on the impermeable surface is high and the large
surface area traps and accumulates matter. Plant top-growth
provides nutrient uptake, shade for protection against algal growth
and water removal in the form of transpiration, while the large mass
of self-generating root systems and accumulated material serve as
living filters.
Jewell et al. (1983) have hypothesized the following mechanisms,
taking place in three plant sections:
1.
2.
3.
Roughing or preliminary treatment by plant species with large root
systems capable of surviving and growing in a grossly polluted condition.
Large sludge accumulations, anaerobic conditions and trace metal
precipitation and entrapment characterize this mechanism and a large
portion of wastewater BOD and suspended solids would thereby be
removed.
Nutrient conversion and recovery due to high biomass production.
Wastewater polishing during nutrient-limited plant production, depending
on the required effluent quality.
The highest loading rates achieved were equivalent to treating the
sewage generated by a population of 10,000 on an area of 2 ha. Plants
other than reed canary grass were also tested and those that flourished
best in the NFT system were: cattails, bulrush, strawflowers, Japanese
millet, roses, Napier grass, marigolds, wheat and phragmites.
Diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm.
PENGENDALIAN AIR LIMBAH
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Nutrient film technique variation of hydroponic plant
production systems (Jewell et al. 1983)
Diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm.
PENGENDALIAN
PENCEMARAN TANAH
REMEDIATION METHODS AND PROCEDURES
“Ex situ” methods
1. Soil excavation
2. Depending on the degree of contamination
3. Decontamination or disposal at a controlled dumping site
4. Decontamination technology:
Land farming
Biodegradation using special bacterial or fungal cultures
“In situ” methods
1. Conventional or pulsed remediation pumping
2. Vacuum pumping
3. Venting
4. Bioventing
5. Air sparging
6. Combined methods
Diunduh dari: http://www.ate-cr.cz/geological-services .
SOIL POLLUTION SURVEYS AND REMEDIAL TECHNIQUES
Soil, together with water and air comprises an essential part of the environment for human beings
and other organisms, and plays the vital role of the mother's womb of the ecological chain.
Compared to water and air, however, soil has diverse compositions which give rise to complicated
reactions with other substances. Once polluted by harmful substances, soil remains polluted for an
extended period of time. That is an important factor of its innate nature is its accumulative
properties.
Our company provides an integrated solution to soil pollution ranging from soil surveys to
remedies for chlorine-based organic solvent, heavy metal, and PCB pollution.
Diunduh dari: http://nett21.gec.jp/AIR/data/Air-245.html .
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PERMASALAHAN
Contaminated soils is one of the environmental problems historically ignored
by humans. Lately, its relation with human health’ safety and ecological
impacts was discovered.
Most widely used techniques applied to polluted soils are removal and
placement in a more secure landfill environment.
REMEDIASI TANAH
Soil Remediation Operations can offer you comprehensive integrated services
from investigation of site contamination, to remediation of existing conditions,
to post-clean-up monitoring.
We will assess any and all hazardous conditions and environmental risks
comprehensively and select the best treatment method, such as: soil washing,
chemical/thermal decomposition, or biological decomposition (Bioremediation).
We address contaminants of all sorts: not only heavy metals, etc., but also
VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds), from oil pollution to buried wastes and
complex contamination.
Flowchart of Soil Remediation:
Diunduh dari: http://www.dowa-eco.co.jp/en/soil.html .
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
Environment technologies
PERMASALAHAN
•
•
Although this simply moves contaminated soil from one place to
another, it can be of significant benefit due to improvements in
landfill design.
Often early landfills were sited in wetlands or adjacent to rivers and
encouraged contaminant migration and ultimately exposure to atrisk populations.
Tjaša Bulc, Nevenka Ferfila, Danijel Vrhovšek, (2004) "Sustainable
reclamation of landfill sites“
Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, Vol. 15 Iss: 1,
pp.55 – 61
The most common form of municipal waste disposal in the EU continues to be
landfilling, from which leachate could seriously contaminate ground water
aquifers that serve as drinking water sources.
Constructed wetland is considered as a sustainable option as it facilitates water
recycling in landfill sites using closed loop technology. In Slovenia constructed
wetlands have been successfully developed and there are already 6 landfills
that have been remediated using this technique.
An innovative co-natural approach that has been applied on the landfill site at
Ormoz (1.5ha), allows a landfill site to become a bioreactor by permitting
controlled infiltration. Leachate is purified using a constructed wetland
covering 1,000m2.
The average hydraulic load is 12m3/d. Purified water will then be recycled
through an underground irrigation system to fast growing trees. We assume
that this solution will allow rapid stabilisation of the landfill site as the
infiltrated water in the landfill site stimulates microbes to mineralise organic
waste.
There is no risk of leaks as the root systems of trees follow the non-uniform
settling of waste. Owing to the closed hydrological and pollution cycle, the
impact on the environment and especially the risk of water contamination will
be reduced.
Diunduh dari: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=871453&show=html.
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
Environment technologies
PERMASALAHAN
•
•
•
Wastes could be stabilised after removal and before or during placement
to further reduce mobility after placement.
Stabilisation might include solidification with concrete or a similar
material or direct chemical treatment of certain contaminants.
Incineration or thermal treatment of the contaminated soil could be used
to eliminate organic contaminants susceptible to destruction or removal
by these means.
SOIL REMEDIATION PROCESS OVERVIEW
Every one of our Soil Stabilisation machines uses an integrated system, whereby the
blending of the soil with the binder takes place within a confined mixing drum, which feeds
the lime or cement powder through a sealed hopper. The percentage of the binder additive
is computer controlled which ensures the spread rate of powder is gauged by the speed of
the drum; therefore the correct volumne of binder is ensured, with virtually no dust
emission to the atmosphere. All powder is stored on site in sealed silos and the binder is
pumped via compressed air into the machine.
Technical
Lime Modification and Stabilisation
The addition of lime to cohesive soil results in
immediate improvements in strengh and plasticity
(modificaiton). Longer term soil-lime pozzolanic
reactions lead to the formation of compounds by
which the modified material becomes cemented,
thus increasing strength and durability
(stabilisation).
The advantages in drying, workability and
performance of the lime ameded soil lends the
process to numerous applications including:
1. improvement of bulk fill and sub-grade or
capping layers
2. temporary (or permanent) Haul Road
Construction
3. Drying out and controlling the moisure
condition and compactability of wet or plastic
soils
4. construction of embankments
5. treatment of sludge
Diunduh dari: http://www.okeefe.co.uk/soil_remediation/process_overview/ .
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
Environment technologies
PERMASALAHAN
•
•
A variety of other processes have been employed to treat contaminated soils
once excavated and removed from a site. Included among these are biological
degradation in dedicated bioreactors and sophisticated extraction schemes, for
example, supercritical extraction, followed by the application of destruction
processes to the effluent.
An alternative to removal options of remediating soil is the use of in situ means
that do not require soil removal. These are generally the options of choice if they
can be demonstrated effective at reducing the volume, toxicity, or exposure to
the wastes.
BIODEGRADATION, decontamination of excavated soil,
remediation
Decontamination of soil from organic substances within a special area,
so-called bioremediation or organic decontamination. Decontamination may
also have the form of landforming, i.e. the use of indigenous bacterial cultures
in soil and optimization of conditions for their activity, or using special bacterial
strains, i.e. using added special bacterial strains complementing the original
soil microflora.
Diunduh dari: http://www.ate-cr.cz/geological-services .
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
Environment technologies
TECHNIQUES
The principle option to decontaminate soils are:
• Removal options for soil remediation
• In situ soil remediation processes
SOIL REMEDIATION is the collective term for various strategies
that are used to purify and revitalize soil. This process of soil cleanup
is part of a broader effort known as environmental remediation,
which can also include efforts to purify the air and other wise repair
damage done to the ecological balance of the planet. Many countries
are actively engaged in some type of land remediation.
Soil remediation is sometimes accomplished using a process known
as pump and treat. Essentially, this approach involves the removal of
contaminated ground water, then using various methods to purify
the extracted liquid. While the water is purified, the soil is also
extracted and filtered to remove various contaminants, then returned
to its original position. The purified water is pumped back into the
purified soil, effectively restoring the ecological balance of the area.
There are a number of different methods currently employed in the
process of dealing with soil contamination. Often, the selection of
the most effective strategy will depend on the nature of the
contamination, how the method will impact surrounding wildlife or
humans living in the general vicinity, and the degree of success that
can be anticipated from the soil remediation effort. It is not unusual
for a given tract of land to undergo more than one cleanup operation
in order to deal with the presence of multiple contaminants.
Diunduh dari: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-soil-remediation.htm .
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
Environment technologies
Removal options for soil remediation
•
These techniques are techniques that consists in to take the
contaminated soil and apply a method to decontaminate. This
techniques are: Incineration, landfilling, stabilization and
solidification, and ex situ bioremediation.
The use of chelating agents in the remediation of
metal-contaminated soils: A review
Domen Leštan, Chun-ling Luo, Xiang-dong Li.
Environmental Pollution. Volume 153, Issue 1, May 2008, Pages 3–13
This paper reviews current remediation technologies that use chelating agents
for the mobilization and removal of potentially toxic metals from contaminated
soils. These processes can be done in situ as enhanced phytoextraction,
chelant enhanced electrokinetic extraction and soil flushing, or exsitu as the
extraction of soil slurry and soil heap/column leaching.
Current proposals on how to treat and recycle waste washing solutions after
soil is washed are discussed. The major controlling factors in phytoextraction
and possible strategies for reducing the leaching of metals associated with the
application of chelants are also reviewed.
Finally, the possible impact of abiotic and biotic soil factors on the toxicity of
metals left after the washing of soil and enhanced phytoextraction are briefly
addressed.
Flow chart of ex situ soil
heap/column leaching.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749107005623 .
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
Environment technologies
IN SITU SOIL REMEDIATION PROCESSES
•
•
These techniques consist in treat the soil in the same land or place where is
contaminated. The techniques or methods are: Pump and treat extraction of
contaminated groundwater, enhancement of pump and treat processes, vacuum
extraction in the unsaturated zone and in situ bioremediation of soils.
Pump and treat extraction of contaminated groundwater is the technique that
remove the contaminated groundwater or separate contaminated phases via
withdrawal wells for above-ground treatment.
BIOREMEDIATION
Jim C Philp, Napier University, Edinburgh, UK
Ronald M Atlas, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
Colin J Cunningham, Contaminated Land Assessment and Remediation Research Centre,
Edinburgh, UK
Published online: March 2009
(a) Leakage from an
underground storage tank.
The contaminated soil and
groundwater can be
bioremediated in situ or ex
situ.
(b) Diagram of in situ
bioremediation of
subsurface hydrocarboncontaminated soil and
groundwater.
(c) In situ bioremediation of
hydrocarbon-contaminated
aquifer by injection of
hydrogen peroxide to
provide a source of
molecular oxygen and
nitrate and phosphate to
provide nutrients for the
growth of hydrocarbon
degraders.
Diunduh dari: http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0000470.html .
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
Environment technologies
TECHNIQUES
•
Enhancement of pump and treat processes are methods of
remediation of soils. These methods are of limited usefulness when
significant quantities of NAPLs exist.
•
Due to the low solubility of most soil contaminants, large volumes of
water are required to remove contaminants present in a separate
phase even if it were possible to maintain the water at saturation.
To reclaim infertile soil
Clean soil is physically isolated
from infertile saline soil by the Guilspare barrier....
... so no transfer of salt from
outside the barrier can take place
Diunduh dari: http://www.guilspare.com/site_guilspare_e/other_applications.html .
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Environment technologies
TECHNIQUES
•
Vacuum extraction in the unsaturated zone is a process that is
similar conceptually to pump and treat of groundwater is soil
vacuum extraction (SVE) in the water-unsaturated zone.
•
A vacuum is applied to the unsaturated zone by placing a vacuum
pump on a well screened in the unsaturated zone. This pulls
vapours through the soil, removing any volatile components that
have volatilised in the subsurface
SOIL VAPOR EXTRACTION (SVE)
Also known as soil venting or vacuum extraction, is an in situ remedial
technology that reduces concentrations of volatile constituents in petroleum
products adsorbed to soils in the unsaturated (vadose) zone. In this
technology, a vacuum is applied to the soil matrix to create a negative
pressure gradient that causes movement of vapors toward extraction wells.
Volatile constituents are readily removed from the subsurface through the
extraction wells. The extracted vapors are then treated, as necessary, and
discharged to the atmosphere or reinjected to the subsurface (where
permissible)
Diunduh dari:
http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/tamop425/0032_kornyezettechnologia_en/ch02s02.html .
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
Environment technologies
TECHNIQUES
•
•
In situ bioremediation of soils is perhaps the most desirable of all
treatment processes is in situ biodegradation to render the soil
harmless and to naturally recycle the contaminants.
There are a number of compounds that undergo detoxification by
microbial processes at rates that are sufficient to justify natural
recovery of contaminated soils.
BIOREMEDIASI TANAH
Bioremediation which occurs without human intervention other than
monitoring is often called natural attenuation. This natural
attenuation relies on natural conditions and behavior of soil
microorganisms that are indigenous to soil.
Biostimulation also utilizes indigenous microbial populations to
remediate contaminated soils.
Biostimulation consists of adding nutrients and other substances
to soil to catalyze natural attenuation processes.
Bioaugmentation involves introduction of exogenic
microorganisms (sourced from outside the soil environment) capable
of detoxifying a particular contaminant, sometimes employing
genetically altered microorganism.
Diunduh dari: http://envirohealthmatters.org/content/cleaning-mess-bioremediation
RHIZO-REMEDIASI TANAH TERCEMAR
Rhizoremediation is a process where microorganisms degrade soil
contaminants in the rhizosphere (arrow region of soil that is directly
influenced by root secretions and associated soil microorganisms).
Soil pollutants that are remediated by this method are generally organic
compounds that cannot enter the plant because of their high
hydrophobicity. Plants are generally not considered as the main mode of
remediation in this technique. Rather, the plant creates a niche for
rhizosphere microorganisms to do the degradation.
Rhizosphere microorganisms are served by the plant acting as a solarpowered pump that draws in water and the pollutant while producing
substrates that benefit microbial survival and growth. Root exudates and
root turnover can serve as substrates for microorganisms that perform
pollutant degradation.
Diunduh dari: http://envirohealthmatters.org/content/cleaning-mess-bioremediation
RHIZO-REMEDIASI TANAH TERCEMAR
Typical organic contaminants (organics) such as petroleum hydrocarbons,
gas condensates, crude oil, chlorinated compounds, pesticides, and
explosive compounds can be remediated using bioremediation. Typical
inorganic contaminants (inorganics) that can be addressed include salts
(salinity), heavy metals, metalloids, and radioactive materials can be
treated with Bioremediation.
Diunduh dari: http://envirohealthmatters.org/content/cleaning-mess-bioremediation
FITO-REMEDIASI TANAH TERCEMAR
.
In some cases, the application of bioremediation can have an immediate
effect on contaminant concentrations upon planting. In other cases, it
may require several seasons before the plant can interact with a
contaminated zone at depth.
Examples of plants applied in phytoremediation
Plant name
Common name
Phytoremediation function
Agropyron repens
Wheat grass
Stabilization of lead in soil
Bambusa
Bamboo
Useful in waste management
Bouteloua gracilis
Blue grama
Rhizodegradation of hydrocarbons
Brassica oleracea
Broccoli
Bench tests for metal
accumulation
Eichhornia crassipes
Water
hyacinth
Metals accumulation, biosorption
Marsilea drummondii
Nardoo
TNT transformation
Diunduh dari: http://envirohealthmatters.org/content/cleaning-mess-bioremediation
PENGENDALIAN BISING
Environment technologies
What types of instruments are used for measuring noise?
The most common instruments used for measuring noise are the sound level meter
(SLM), the integrating sound level meter (ISLM), and the noise dosimeter. It is
important that you understand the calibration, operation and reading the instrument
you use. The user's manual provided by the instrument manufacturer provides most
of this information.
Guidelines for Instrument Selection
Type of Measurement
Appropriate
Instruments
(in order of
preference)
Result
Comments
Dose or equivalent sound
level
Most accurate for personal noise
exposures
2) ISLM*
Equivalent sound level
If the worker is mobile, it may be
difficult to determine a personal
exposure, unless work can be easily
divided into defined activities.
3) SLM**
dB(A)
If noise levels vary considerably, it is
difficult to determine average
exposure. Only useful when work can
be easily divided into defined activities
and noise levels are relatively stable all
the time.
1) SLM**
dB(A)
Measurement should be taken 1 to 3
metres from source (not directly at the
source).
2) ISLM**
Equivalent sound level dB(A) Particularly useful if noise is highly
variable; it can measure equivalent
sound level over a short period of time
(1 minute).
1) SLM
dB(A)
2) ISLM
Equivalent sound level dB(A) For highly variable noise.
1) Impulse SLM
Peak pressure dB(A)
Personal noise exposure 1) Dosimeter
Noise levels generated
by a particular source
Noise survey
Impulse noise
To produce noise map of an area; take
measurements on a grid pattern.
To measure the peak of each impulse.
* SLM stands for Sound Level Meter
** ISLM stands for Integrating Sound Level Meter
Diunduh dari: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/noise_measurement.html.
PENGENDALIAN KEBISINGAN
Environment technologies
Noise Control Treatment Strategies
Fundamentals Of Noise Control Problem Solving
Diunduh dari: http://citysoundproofing.com/strategies.html.
PENGENDALIAN KEBISINGAN
Environment technologies
PERMASALAHAN
• Noise pollution is traditionally not placed among the top
environmental problems facing the society; however, it is
one of the more frequently encountered sources
• Sources of noise pollution are extremely diverse and are
constantly increasing as more and more noise-generating
products become available to consumers.
• An estimated 6% citizens are exposed to noise that poses a
threat to their hearing.
• In today's mechanized world it is virtually impossible for an
active person to avoid exposure to potentially harmful
sound levels.
Why measure noise in the workplace?
Measuring noise levels and workers' noise exposures is the most important
part of a workplace hearing conservation and noise control program. It helps
identify work locations where there are noise problems, employees who may
be affected, and where additional noise measurements need to be made.
How do you identify noise problems in the workplace?
The first step is to determine whether or not noise is a potential
problem in your workplace. A walk-through survey helps in making this
decision. The indicators of potentially hazardous noise level include:
1. noise is louder than busy city traffic,
2. people have to raise their voice to talk to someone at one metre (3
feet) away,
3. at the end of work shift people have to increase the volume of their
radio or TV to a level too loud for others, and
4. after working for a few years at that workplace, employees find it
difficult to communicate in a crowd or party situation where there
are other sounds or many voices.
Noise measurement data from studies in similar situations are very
helpful in assessing the potential noise problem.
Diunduh dari: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/noise_measurement.html .
PENGENDALIAN KEBISINGAN
Environment technologies
PENGENDALIAN KEBISINGAN
•
General control measures include alteration of machines and equipment
to gather up-dated machinery regarding noise prevention.
Noise can be tackled through:
•
Reduksi
Di Sumber
Change to quieter
methods
Pencegahan atau
Reduksi Perbanyakannya
Distance : Increase the distance between the source
of the noise and the people
Increasing the distance between a person and the noise source can reduce
noise exposure considerably. Some examples of this are:
1.
2.
3.
direct the discharge from exhausts well away from workers, eg by fitting a
flexible hose to discharge exhaust several metres away from the operator.
Similarly, on a mobile machine powered by an internal combustion engine
the exhaust can be kept well away from the driving position;
use remote control or automated equipment to avoid the need for workers
to spend long periods near to machines;
separate noisy processes to restrict the number of people exposed to high
levels of noise, eg test engines in test cells which need to be entered only
occasionally, make arrangements for quiet inspection tasks to be carried
out away from noisy manufacturing areas, and locate unattended air
compressors and refrigeration plant in separate rooms.
Diunduh dari: http://www.hse.gov.uk/noise/goodpractice/workplacedesign.htm .
PENGENDALIAN KEBISINGAN
Environment technologies
PENGENDALIAN KEBISINGAN
•
It is often possible to reduce noise radiation from production equipment, material
handling, and work in progress; for example by damping sound radiating panels,
quietening power sources and transmissions, and reducing noise from
compressed air exhausts.
Sometimes machine alterations or enclosures do not give sufficiently good
results, and if it is the work process itself which causes intense noise it can be
difficult to predict the results of noise control measures.
In such cases effort might be better aimed at changing the working methods and
processes themselves.
•
•
REDUKSI
Di Sumber
NOISE CONTROL MEASURES
1.
2.
3.
There are ways which acoustic insulation can be used to
control noise:
Controlling Transmission Loss – Transmission loss is the reduction in the
amount of sound energy passing through the building element or
assemblyroof- wall-floor. This is expressed in decibels (dB). Noise can be
either impact sound or airborne
Controlling Sound Absorption – Typically hard surfaces have a characteristic
of reflecting sound and amplifying noise reverberation.
Internal lining and ceiling systems – Acoustic performance systems are
available from specialist suppliers.
Diunduh dari: http://panels.kingspan.in/Building-Sound-Insulation-|-Sound-Insulation-Material-|Sound-Absorbing-Material-|-India--13265.html .
PENGENDALIAN KEBISINGAN
Environment technologies
PENGENDALIAN KEBISINGAN
•
•
Changing the method of work is the only way to get to grips with noise
generation; it requires that production equipment or part of it must be replaced
and one must be aware of the availability of less noisy equipment for both
production and material handling.
Requires cooperation between the buyer, supplier, designer, and safety
organization.
Change to quieter
methods
Design and lay out the workplace for reduced noise
exposure
When considering using noiseabsorbing materials to change the
acoustic characteristics of a work area
remember:
environmental and workplace factors:
absorption materials are available in
forms which are designed to withstand
physical impacts, and can be adapted
to hygienic environments or where
absorption of oil, water etc may be a
problem;
there may be a reduction in the natural
light if absorption is placed in the roof;
adding absorbent materials to walls
and ceiling areas will only affect the
reflected, reverberant sound – not the
direct path of sound.
Diunduh dari: http://www.hse.gov.uk/noise/goodpractice/workplacedesign.htm .
PENGENDALIAN KEBISINGAN
Environment technologies
PENGENDALIAN KEBISINGAN
•
•
•
•
Prevent propagation to avoid noise pollution can result economically more
efficient than corrective measures.
The noise in a workshop is often dominated by a relatively small number of
intense noise sources.Try to enclose all noise sources points or keep them
away from workers in the same room.
By setting up sound absorbing ceiling and wall panels, noise levels within the
room far from the noise sources can be reduced.
Alteration and replacement of production equipment may mean that personnel
monitoring this machinery do not need to be in its vicinity if monitoring can be
carried out in a sound insulated control room.
Prevention or
reduction of propagation
The sound absorption coefficient of materials varies with the sound
frequency hertz (Hz).
Roof and wall sound insulation concerns only
the airborne sound insulation of the roof and
walls of the building facade to:
1. prevent excessive transmission of
external noise, for example, road traffic,
rail traffic, aircraft, etc. from outside to
inside
2. prevent excessive transmission of
internal noise, for example, machinery
noise within industrial premises, from
inside to outside
Sound insulation criteria are dependant on
country specific regulations and client
specification requirements which may also
include Planning Authority constraints.
Diunduh dari: http://panels.kingspan.in/Building-Sound-Insulation-|-Sound-Insulation-Material-|-SoundAbsorbing-Material-|-India--13265.html .
PENGENDALIAN KEBISINGAN
Environment technologies
PENGENDALIAN KEBISINGAN
•
•
For all noise control efforts a target noise level must be set.
A highest level must be defined for each place of equipment or
room
Guideline noise levels for specific locations
Tipe Ruangan
Tingkat Suara Tertinggi
(dB)
Ruang Konferensi
35
Kantor
40
Kantor Workshop, Ruang
Istirahat
45
Laboratory, measurement
room
50
Kantin
50
Changing room
55
Repair shop
60
Area Produksi
75
Fan room, compressor room
90
Diunduh dari: .
PENGENDALIAN KEBISINGAN
Environment technologies
TIP-TIP PENGENDALIAN BISING
•
•
•
•
•
Machinery have to be adapted to new normative, relevant materials of the machines
are key to ensure appropriate noise levels.
Existing equipment must be attenuated without complicated operations.
Handling material can be done by consider choosing conveyor belts and controlling
the speed of conveyor belt transports.
Enclosure of machines can reduce noise levels at its source very effectively.
Attenuation by using absorbent materials is one of the key techniques to ensure that
rooms and workshops do not communicate noise pollution to each other. To ensure
so, best practices are providing sound isolated rooms.
WHAT IS A NOISE SURVEY?
A noise survey takes noise measurements throughout an entire plant or
section to identify noisy areas. Noise surveys provide very useful information
which enables us to identify:
1. areas where employees are likely to be exposed to harmful levels of noise
and personal dosimetry may be needed,
2. machines and equipment which generate harmful levels of noise,
3. employees who might be exposed to unacceptable noise levels, and
4. noise control options to reduce noise exposure.
Noise survey is conducted in areas where noise
exposure is likely to be hazardous. Noise level
refers to the level of sound. A noise survey
involves measuring noise level at selected
locations throughout an entire plant or sections
to identify noisy areas. This is usually done with
a sound level meter ( SLM). A reasonably
accurate sketch showing the locations of
workers and noisy machines is drawn. Noise
level measurements are taken at a suitable
number of positions around the area and are
marked on the sketch. The more
measurements taken, the more accurate the
survey. A noise map can be produced by
drawing lines on the sketch between points of
equal sound level. Noise survey maps, like that
in Figure 2, provide very useful information by
clearly identifying areas where there are noise
hazards.
Diunduh dari: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/noise_measurement.html .
PENGENDALIAN KEBISINGAN
Environment technologies
HASIL-HASIL PENGENDALIAN BISING
•
•
•
•
Mounting an absorbent roof or ceiling in a room will in general give a
noise reduction of between 3 and 5 dB. Exceptionally, up to 10 dB can be
obtained.
Damping of vibration of small production machines by applying damping
material can give between 3 and 10 dB attenuation.
Factory-made screens can reduce noise from between 5 and 15 dB.
Leakage where pipes pass through walls as well as acoustic leaks
between walls, screens or enclosures, can produce large variations in the
attenuation achieved. It is therefore important to seal air gaps carefully.
. NOISE CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR NATURALLY
VENTILATED BUILDINGS
M.H.F. De Salis, D.J. Oldham, S. Sharples
Building and Environment. Volume 37, Issue 5, May 2002, Pages 471–484.
Natural ventilation openings offer little resistance to noise passage as the
introduction of conventional passive noisecontrol treatments will generally
incur a large flow constraint.
This paper reviews various noisecontrol techniques and assesses the variation
of airflow characteristics with sound insulation to road traffic noise of a façade
incorporating ventilation openings. It is suggested that reactive and active
techniques can possibly supplement conventional passive attenuation
especially in the limiting low frequency region while adding minimal flow
constraint to the ventilation path.
Using such hybrid systems useful broad band sound reduction may be a real
possibility for natural ventilation openings.
PENGENDALIAN KEBISINGAN
Environment technologies
PENGENDALIAN BISING PADA PROYEK BARU
•
•
•
Noise control of new projects can be difficult to manage and implement,
but very cost-effective at the long term.
Implementing noise reduction measures at rooms, planning the building
and purchase accurate machinery are necessary steps to execute a
program for noise control.
Noise abatement measures at the municipality level can reduce the
background noise and establish an adequate framework to develop a
detailed building code regarding noise reduction
Screens and barriers - placing an obstacle between
the noise source and the people
Screens, barriers or walls can be
placed between the source of the
noise and the people to stop or
reduce the direct sound. Barriers
should be constructed from a dense
material, eg brick or sheet steel,
although chipboard and plasterboard
can be used.
Screens and barriers work best when
they are placed close to the noise
source or close to the people you are
trying to protect. The higher and
wider they are, the more effective
they are likely to be. They work best
in rooms with either high or soundabsorbent ceilings.
Diunduh dari: http://www.hse.gov.uk/noise/goodpractice/workplacedesign.htm .
TEKNOLOGI
PEMANTAUAN
Diunduh dari: .
TEKNOLOGI PEMANTAUAN LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
LINGKUP KAJIAN
PEMANTAUAN KUALITAS LINGKUNGAN
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pemilihan Metode
Sampling Air
Sampling Groundwater
Soil sampling
Air sampling
Noise sampling
Sampling packment and shipment
Trend and status of air quality at three different monitoring stations
in the Klang Valley, Malaysia
Siti Zawiyah Azmi, Mohd Talib Latif, Aida Shafawati Ismail, Liew Juneng and Abdul Aziz
Jemain
Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health. Volume 3, Number 1 (2010), 53-64
Over the last decades, the development of the Klang Valley (Malaysia), as an urban
commercial and industrial area, has elevated the risk of atmospheric pollutions. There are
several significant sources of air pollutants which vary depending on the background of the
location they originate from. The aim of this study is to determine the trend and status of
air quality and their correlation with the meteorological factors at different air quality
monitoring stations in the Klang Valley. The data of five major air pollutants (PM10, CO, SO2,
O3, NO2) were recorded at the Alam Sekitar Sdn Bhd (ASMA) monitoring stations in the
Klang Valley, namely Petaling Jaya (S1), Shah Alam (S2) and Gombak (S3). The data from
these three stations were compared with the data recorded at Jerantut, Pahang (B), a
background station established by the Malaysian Department of Environment. Results show
that the concentrations of CO, NO2 and SO2 are higher at Petaling Jaya (S1) which is due to
influence of heavy traffic. The concentrations of PM10 and O3, however, are predominantly
related to regional tropical factors, such as the influence of biomass burning and of ultra
violet radiation from sunlight. They can, though, also be influenced by local sources. There
are relatively stronger inter-pollutant correlations at the stations of Gombak and Shah Alam,
and the results also suggest that heavy traffic flow induces high concentrations of PM 10, CO,
NO2 and SO2 at the three sampling stations. Additionally, meteorological factors, particularly
the ambient temperature and wind speed, may influence the concentration of PM10 in the
atmosphere.
Diunduh dari: .
TEKNOLOGI PEMANTAUAN LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
PERMASALAHAN
•
•
In many instances, we are unaware that a problem exists until harm has been
done. Damage may be in the form of disease to the surrounding population or
destruction of the surrounding ecosystem. Monitoring problem areas or potential
problem areas can help to limit future damage.
Before beginning any sampling program, background research must be
conducted to determine:
- proper equipment for both sampling and personal protection,
- proper sampling methodology and analytical methods, and
- appropriate health and safety practices to be employed. This is especially
important when handling materials which may be hazardous or radioactive.
Satellite monitoring of forest fires and associated smoke
plumes occurring in Korea
Y. S. Chung & H. S. Kim
Air Qual Atmos Health (2008) 1:111–118
Operational research was carried out on satellite detection of forest fires and
associated smoke plumes occurring in the Korean Peninsula. Forest fire data
and satellite images obtained from 2004 to 2007 were examined. It was
observed that at least three forest-fire episodes were caused by atmospheric
lightning, while all other cases were recorded as anthropogenic causes,
according to data gathered from the Korean meteorological and forestry
services. For two episodes, there were 60~120 forest fires in North and South
Korea, observations based on hotspots analysis. Smoke plumes transported
over 1,200 km were observed.
There was discussion of the role played by the emission of heated air and
greenhouse gases in general warming and climate change in regional and
global atmospheres, e.g., Arctic ice melting. With global warming, ice over the
Arctic Ocean is melting significantly in summer (Chung and Le, Int J Remote
Sens 25(2):front cover and 291–296, 2004). The suppression of forest fires
caused by human activities is suggested to improve the atmospheric
environment and to prevent climate change in the near future.
Diunduh dari: .
TEKNOLOGI PEMANTAUAN LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
MEMILIH METODE
Methods used to obtain data regarding contamination of soil, air, and water , have to
take into account the following factors:
- The program objective (documenting exposures. determining regulatory
compliance
- The type of material to be sampled (soil, vegetation, air, water, sludge, etc.).
- The physical and chemical properties of the contaminant.
- Other contaminants that affect the results.
- Regulatory requirements and safety
- Costs
- Reliability.
- Scale of sample area (small-scale site related to individual persons versus a
large-scale site).
- Short- versus long-term sampling requirement
Role of science and judgment in setting national ambient air
quality standards: how low is low enough?
Roger O. McClellan
Air Qual Atmos Health (2012) 5:243–258
The Clean Air Act (CAA) requires listing as criteria air pollutants those pollutants that arise
from multiple sources and are found across the United States. The original list included
carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, particulate matter, photochemical oxidants
(later regulated as ozone), and hydrocarbons.
Later, the listing of hydrocarbons was revoked and lead was listed. The CAA requires the EPA
Administrator to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for these pollutants
using the “latest scientific knowledge” at levels that, in the judgment of the Administrator, are
“requisite to protect public health” while “allowing an adequate margin of safety” without
considering the cost of implementing the NAAQS.
I conclude that scientists should carefully distinguish between their interpretations of scientific
knowledge on specific pollutants and their personal preferences as to a given policy outcome
(i.e., specific level and form of the NAAQS), recognizing that these are policy judgments as to
acceptable levels of risk if the science does not identify a threshold level below which there
are no identifiable health risks.
These policy judgments are exclusively delegated by the CAA to the EPA Administrator who
needs to articulate the basis for their policy judgments on the level and form of the NAAQS
and associated level of acceptable risk .
Diunduh dari: .
TEKNOLOGI PEMANTAUAN LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
SAMPLING
Several factors must be accomplished to carry on an adequate sampling practice:
 samples must represent the conditions existing at the point taken.
 samples must be of sufficient volume and must be taken frequently
enough to permit reproducibility of testing requisite for the desired
objective, as conditioned by the method of analysis to be employed.
 the samples must be collected, packed, shipped, and manipulated prior to
analysis in a manner that safeguards against change in the particular
constituents or properties to be examined.
Community Capacity for Watershed Conservation: A Quantitative
Assessment of Indicators and Core Dimensions
Elliot Brinkman, Erin Seekamp, Mae A. Davenport and Joan M. Brehm
Online First™, 10 August 2012. Environmental Management.
Community capacity for watershed management has emerged as an important topic for the
conservation of water resources. While much of the literature on community capacity has
focused primarily on theory construction, there have been few efforts to quantitatively
assess community capacity variables and constructs, particularly for watershed
management and conservation.
This study seeks to identify predictors of community capacity for watershed conservation in
southwestern Illinois. A subwatershed-scale survey of residents from four communities
located within the Lower Kaskaskia River watershed of southwestern Illinois was
administered to measure three specific capacity variables: community empowerment,
shared vision and collective action. Principal component analysis revealed key dimensions of
each variable. Specifically, collective action was characterized by items relating to
collaborative governance and social networks, community empowerment was characterized
by items relating to community competency and a sense of responsibility and shared vision
was characterized by items relating to perceptions of environmental threats, issues with
development, environmental sense of place and quality of life. From the emerging factors,
composite measures were calculated to determine the extent to which each variable
contributed to community capacity.
A stepwise regression revealed that community empowerment explained most of the
variability in the composite measure of community capacity for watershed conservation.
This study contributes to the theoretical understanding of community capacity by
quantifying the role of collective action, community empowerment and shared vision in
community capacity, highlighting the need for multilevel interaction to address watershed
issues.
Diunduh dari: .
TEKNOLOGI PEMANTAUAN LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
SAMPLING AIR
•
Water sampling methodologies include:
-
•
•
Grab sample
Composite sample
Continuous flowing sample
Collection of a grab sample of water at a
specific site representing conditions only at
the time of sampling. Applicable to sampling
water from sources such as wells, rivers,
streams, lakes and oceans for chemical,
physical, bacteriological, or radiological
analysis
Collection of a composite sample at a specific
site, portions of which are collected at varied
time intervals. Alternatively, the composite
may consist of portions collected at various
sites or may consist of a combination of both
site and time variables.
Diunduh dari: .
TEKNOLOGI PEMANTAUAN LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
SAMPLING AIR
•
•
Continuous flowing sample, from one or more sampling sites, suitable for on-stream
analysers. Applicable to sampling water from sources such as wells, rivers, streams,
lakes, oceans, and reservoirs on a continual basis for chemical, physical, or
radiological analyses
Apparatus used are:
- Delivery valve or pump.
- Piping system.
- Flow regulation system
- Waste disposal system.
Ground-root sewage plant
Ground-root sewage plants with willow or common reed beds seem to be
especially efficient. In densely-populated areas where the buildings have
sewage systems, the local community authorities together with the farmers,
should try to build communal sewage disposal systems.
Diunduh dari: http://www.baap.lt/codes_gap/poland/part_c.htm .
TEKNOLOGI PEMANTAUAN LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
PEMANTAUAN AIR TANAH = GROUNDWATER MONITORING
•
•
•
It is developed by delineating contamination plumes, and establishing the integrity of
hazardous material management facilities.
Goal in sampling groundwater monitoring wells is to obtain samples that are truly
representative of the aquifer or groundwater in question.
Water that stands within a monitoring well for a long period of time may become
unrepresentative of formation water because chemical or biochemical change may
cause water-quality alterations; and even if it is unchanged from the time it entered the
well, the stored water may not be representative of formation water at the time of
sampling.
MEASURING HOW NITROGEN TRANSFORMS IN
GROUNDWATER
Single-well tracer tests involve injecting a tracer solution into one
port of a multilevel sampling well, creating a tracer cloud in the
groundwater, and then monitoring the water chemistry in the tracer
cloud from the same well as the tracer cloud moves away from the
well.
Diunduh dari: http://toxics.usgs.gov/highlights/nitrate_transformation_tool.html.
TEKNOLOGI PEMANTAUAN LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
SAMPLING TANAH
Two portions of the soil that are important to
the environmental scientist:
0-15 cm layer
Upper meter
The surface layer (0-15 cm) reflects the
deposition of airborne pollutants, especially
those recently deposited pollutants. Pollutants
that have been deposited by liquid spills or by
long-term
deposition
of
water-soluble
materials may be found at depths ranging up
to several meters. Plumes emanating from
hazardous waste dumps or from leaking
storage tanks may be found at considerable
depths.
The methods of sampling each of these are
slightly different, but all make use of one of
two basic techniques.
Diunduh dari: .
TEKNOLOGI PEMANTAUAN LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
PERLENGKAPAN SAMPLING TANAH
•
•
Samples can be collected with some form of core sampling or auger
device, or they may be collected by use of excavations or trenches. In the
latter case, the samples are cut from the soil mass with spades or short
punches.
Techniques that are utilized should be closely coordinated with the
analytical laboratory in order to meet the specific requirements of the
analytical methods used.
Typical soil sampling procedures
Diunduh dari: http://www.elibrary.dep.state.pa.us/dsweb/GetRendition/Document-48917/html .
TEKNOLOGI PEMANTAUAN LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
SAMPLING TANAH PERMUKAAN (TOPSOIL)
•
•
•
Use of a punch or thin-walled steel tube that is 15-20 cm long to extract
short cores from the soil. Tube is driven into the soil with a wooden mallet;
the core and the robe are extracted; and the soil is pushed out of the tube
into a stainless steel mixing bowl.
Using a seamless steel ring, approximately 15-30 cm in diameter, the ring
is driven into the soil to a depth of 15-20 cm. The ring is extracted as a
soil-ring unit, and the soil is removed for analysis.
Perhaps the most undesirable sample collection device is the shovel or
scoop. Often used in agriculture, but where samples are being taken for
chemical pollutants, the inconsistencies are to be great.
To desalinize soil under existing trees
Without treatment, salt steadily accumulates. With treatment, salt levels fall to
equilibrium with salt in water.
Diunduh dari: http://www.guilspare.com/site_guilspare_e/other_applications.html.
TEKNOLOGI PEMANTAUAN LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
SAMPLING PERMUKAAN DANGKAL
•
•
•
Sampling pollutants that have moved into the lower soil horizons requires
the use of a device that will extract a longer core than can be obtained with
the short probes or punches.
Three basic methods are used for sampling these deeper soils
- Soil probes or soil augers
- Power-driven corers
- Trenching
Samples should be collected at least every 1.5 m or in each distinct stratum. Additional
samples should be collected where sand lenses or thin silt and sand lovers appear in
the profile.
To fight against desertification through Nitrobacter activation
Effect on the Nitrobacters with drip line irrigation.
Diunduh dari: http://www.guilspare.com/site_guilspare_e/other_applications.html .
MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES
Environment technologies
SAMPLING UDARA
•
•
•
Investigations of atmospheric contaminants involve the study of a
heterogeneous mass under uncontrolled conditions. Interpretation of the data
derived from the air-sampling program must often be based on the statistical
theory of probability.
Extreme care must be observed to obtain measurements over a sufficient length
of time to obtain results that may be considered representative.
Choice of sampling techniques and measurement methodology, the
characteristics of the sites, the number of sampling stations, and the amount of
data collected all depend on the objectives of the monitoring program
UCB (University of California , Barkeley) Air Sampling
Experimental Setup - System A
The air sampling system resides on the top of Etcheverry Hall and consists of
three sets of air pumps that suction air through a tube connected to a flow
meter and a 0.2 micron filter. Most air particles will be deposited within the
filter and this is the media we use to detect radioactivity.
After a period of time, the filters are removed from the pump
apparatus and transported to our radiation counting laboratory.
Our detector is a high-purity germanium (10%) detector that is
surrounded by a 2" thick lead "cave" as shown below. The lead
shields the detector from most normal background radiation that
is emitted from materials such as concrete walls, floors, etc.
within the laboratory. The filter is placed in a calibrated position
near the detector and the cave is completely closed. Once the
counting acquisition begins, if radioactive particles are present
on the filter, the particles will decay and emit gamma radiation
which may penetrate the detector surface and interact within the
germanium semiconductor crystal.
This will liberate electrons which produce a current proportional
to the energy deposited by the gamma-ray photon. Our
acquisition system then determines the energy by analyzing the
signal pulse passed out of the detector to our computing
system. After many interactions occur, the resulting spectra,
shown below, will contain a number of discrete "lines" or
"peaks" that are signatures used to discern the type of particles
deposited within the filter.
Diunduh dari: http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/UCBAirSampling/UCBAirSamplingSetup.
MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES
Environment technologies
TUJUAN SAMPLING UDARA
POLLUTION
ABATEMENT
PROGRAMS
ANALYSIS
AIR QUALITY
CRITERIA and
STANDARD
SETTING
TREND
ANALYSIS
HEALTH and
VEGETATION
EFFECTS STUDIES
TUJUAN
SAMPLING
UDARA
BACKGROUND
EVAUATIONS
ACTIVATION of
EMERGENCY
PROCEDURES
Diunduh dari: .
CONTROL
REGULATIONS
ENFORCEMENT
DEVELOPMENT of
AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL
STRATEGIES
TEKNOLOGI PEMANTAUAN LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
FAKTOR SAMPLING UDARA
•
•
•
•
The topography, demography, and micrometeorology of the area, as
well as the contaminant measured, must be considered in
determining the number of monitoring stations required in the area.
A map of the locations of the sampling stations is desirable in
describing the sampling station.
Multiple samplers or monitors operating simultaneously upwind and
downwind from the source are often very valuable and efficient.
Choice of procedure for the air sampling is dependent on the
contaminant to be measured.
METODE SAMPLING UDARA
PASIF
Scheme of the passive air
sampling device
Passive air sampling device
consists of two stainless steel
bowls attached to the common
axes to form a protective chamber
for the polyurethane foam filter.
The filter is attached to the same
rod and it is sheltered against the
wet and dry atmospheric
deposition, wind and UV light.
Exposure times between four and
twelve weeks enable determination
of many compounds from the POP
group. Average sampling rate was
estimated to be 3.5 m3/day which
roughly corresponds to 100 m3 of
the air sampled during four weeks
of deployment.
Diunduh dari: http://www.monet-ceec.eu/index.php?pg=methods.
TEKNOLOGI PEMANTAUAN LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
PEDOMAN SAMPLING UDARA
•
•
•
•
The height of the inlet to the sampling duct should normally be from 2.5 to 5 m above
ground whenever possible.
Height of the inlet above the sampling station structure or vegetation adjacent to the
station should be greater than 1 m.
Sampling should preferably be through a vertical inlet with an inverted cone over the
opening.
For a horizontal inlet, there should be a minimum of 2 m from the face of the structure.
AL-SALEM, S. M. and KHAN, A R..
Comparative assessment of ambient air quality in two urban areas
adjacent to petroleum downstream/upstream facilities in Kuwait.
Braz. J. Chem. Eng. [online]. 2008, vol.25, n.4, pp. 683-696.
Air quality data (ground level ozone (O3), NO, NOx, SO2, CO, H2S and NH3) of two
Kuwaiti urban areas adjacent to petroleum processing facilities, Fahaheel and AlRiqa, were analyzed and compared to evaluate: (1) the exceedances of the Kuwait
Environment Public Authority (KUEPA) air quality limits, (2) primary air pollution
sources and their contribution to the ambient load, (3) diurnal patterns of air
pollutants and (4) the "weekend effect"on O3 levels. High O3 levels, above the
threshold limit for human health, were observed in both urban areas. CO, NOx and
NO levels in Fahaheel were higher than in Al-Riqa. Combustion sources (which exist
close to Fahaheel) drive both NOx and NO diurnal patterns in both areas.
Emissions from downstream facilities and the activity of Fahaheel highway affect the
CO levels in the areas. Concentration roses were plotted for annual durations to
examine the primary dominant sources of air pollution in both study areas. By
establishing a Chemical Mass Balance (CMB) model around the two receptor points
in both areas, it was revealed that the downstream facilities sector was the main
contributor of air pollutants in Fahaheel.
CMB model gave a 70% average contribution of the sector to the Fahaheel receptor
point. However, 70% of the total contribution of the studied sources in Al-Riqa urban
area was from the traffic and line sources side. The examination of the rate of O3
accumulation, during the high O3 period in Kuwait (April-October), revealed the
occurrence of two phases, a fast and a slow one, with different durations in each
urban area. Regression equations were used to study the midweek effect of O3
levels.
This study supports the hypothesis that O3 weekend variation is due to an NOx
emission difference between weekends and weekdays and VOCs sensitivity.
TEKNOLOGI PEMANTAUAN LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
PEDOMAN SAMPLING UDARA
•
•
•
•
For access to representative ambient air in the area sampled, the elevation
angle from the inlet to the top of nearby buildings should be less than 30°.
To be representative of the area in which a large segment of the population is
exposed to contaminants emitted by automobiles, the inlet should be at a
distance greater than 15 m from the nearest high-volume traffic artery.
Photochemical oxidants or ozone samplers should be located at distances
greater than 50 m from high-volume-traffic locations.
Particulate matter samplers should be sited at locations that are greater than
200 m from unpaved streets or roads.
GROSJEAN, Eric and GROSJEAN, Daniel.
Formation of Ozone in Urban Air by Photochemical Oxidation of
Hydrocarbons: Captive Air Experiments in Porto Alegre, RS.
J. Braz. Chem. Soc. [online]. 1998, vol.9, n.2, pp. 131-143.
Captive air experiments have been carried out at a downtown location in Porto
Alegre, RS, where both methyl-tert-butyl ether (MTBE) and ethanol are being used
as oxygenated fuels. In a captive air experiment, ambient air is introduced in a Teflon
chamber and exposed to sunlight for several hours, thus allowing photochemical
reactions to take place under "real-world" conditions. Parameters measured in six
experiments, the first of their kind to be carried out in Brazil, included oxides of
nitrogen (NO and NO2), carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, ca. 75 nonmethane hydrocarbons, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, ethanol, MTBE, and the
photochemical oxidants ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).
Photochemical conversion of NO to NO2 and photochemical production of ozone
(maximum concentrations 156-348 ppb) and PAN (maximum 13.3-29.5 ppb) were
observed in all experiments, together with net (formation minus removal)
photochemical production of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde. For each experiment,
the contributions of each pollutant to reaction with the hydroxyl radical (OH) and to
the production of ozone have been calculated.
The results indicate that on the average the following 10 compounds are the most
important with respect to the production of ozone (listed in order of decreasing
importance): ethylene, carbon monoxide, acetaldehyde, (m + p)-xylene,
formaldehyde, propene, 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene, toluene, ethanol and trans-2pentene. MTBE makes only a small contribution to reaction with OH (ranked #27)
and to the production of ozone (ranked #30), and plays only a minor photochemical
role in the atmosphere of Porto Alegre.
TEKNOLOGI PEMANTAUAN LINGKUNGAN
Environment technologies
SAMPLING KEBISINGAN
•
•
•
•
To avoid noise pollution, it is very relevant to have an appropriate
estimation of noise level at the place of work through modern and
accurate techniques and measuring tools.
Background noise can be very relevant at factories located around
main highways, close to the airports.
Sound-level meter is best used attached to the person exposed.
Noise sampling has to take into account internal and external
measures to the workplace
Noise level measurement
In, measuring sound levels, instruments are used which resemble the human ear
in sensitivity to noise composed of varying frequencies. The instruments
measure the "A-weighted sound level" in units called dB(A).
Workplace noise measurements indicate the combined sound levels of tool noise
from a number of sources (machinery and materials handling) and background
noise (from ventilation systems, cooling compressors, circulation pumps, etc.).
Diunduh dari:
http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/SafetyInYourWorkplace/HazardsAndSafetyIssues/NoiseAnd
Hearing/Pages/NoiseControl.aspx .
. BIOCHAR INCORPORATION INTO PASTURE SOIL SUPPRESSES
IN SITU NITROUS OXIDE EMISSIONS FROM RUMINANT URINE
PATCHES
Arezoo Taghizadeh-Toosi , Tim J. Clough, Leo M. Condron, Robert R. Sherlock, Craig R. Anderson
and Robin A. Craigie
JEQ Vol. 40 No. 2, p. 468-476
. Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from grazing animal excreta are estimated to
be responsible for 1.5 Tg of the total 6.7 Tg of anthropogenic N2O emissions.
This study was conducted to determine the in situ effect of incorporating
biochar, into soil, on N2O emissions from bovine urine patches and associated
pasture uptake of N. The effects of biochar rate (0–30 t ha−1), following soil
incorporation, were investigated on ruminant urine-derived N2O fluxes, N
uptake by pasture, and pasture yield.
During an 86-d spring-summer period, where irrigation and rainfall occurred,
the N2O fluxes from 15N labeled ruminant urine patches were reduced by
>50%, after incorporating 30 t ha−1 of biochar. Taking into account the N2O
emissions from the control plots, 30 t ha−1 of biochar reduced the N2O
emission factor from urine by 70%. The atom% 15N enrichment of the N2O
emitted was lower in the 30 t ha−1 biochar treatment, indicating less urine-N
contributed to the N2O flux.
Soil NO3 −-N concentrations were lower with increasing biochar rate during
the first 30 d following urine deposition. No differences occurred, due to
biochar addition, with respect to dry matter yields, herbage N content, or
recovery of 15N applied in herbage.
Incorporating biochar into the soil can significantly diminish ruminant urinederived N2O emissions. Further work is required to determine the persistence
of the observed effect and to fully understand the mechanism(s) of the
observed reduction in N2O fluxes.
Diunduh dari: https://www.agronomy.org/publications/jeq/abstracts/40/2/468.
. EVALUATING CHANGES IN MATRIX-BASED, RECOVERY-
ADJUSTED CONCENTRATIONS IN PAIRED DATA FOR
PESTICIDES IN GROUNDWATER
Tammy M. Zimmerman and Kevin J. Breen
JEQ Vol. 41 No. 4, p. 1238-1245
. Pesticide concentration data for waters from selected carbonate-rock
aquifers in agricultural areas of Pennsylvania were collected in 1993–2009 for
occurrence and distribution assessments.
A set of 30 wells was visited once in 1993–1995 and again in 2008–2009 to
assess concentration changes. The data include censored matched pairs
(nondetections of a compound in one or both samples of a pair). A potentially
improved approach for assessing concentration changes is presented where
(i) concentrations are adjusted with models of matrix-spike recovery and (ii)
area-wide temporal change is tested by use of the paired Prentice-Wilcoxon
(PPW) statistical test.
The PPW results for atrazine, simazine, metolachlor, prometon, and an
atrazine degradate, deethylatrazine (DEA), are compared using recoveryadjusted and unadjusted concentrations. Results for adjusted compared with
unadjusted concentrations in 2008–2009 compared with 1993–1995 were
similar for atrazine and simazine (significant decrease; 95% confidence level)
and metolachlor (no change) but differed for DEA (adjusted, decrease;
unadjusted, increase) and prometon (adjusted, decrease; unadjusted, no
change).
The PPW results were different on recovery-adjusted compared with
unadjusted concentrations. Not accounting for variability in recovery can
mask a true change, misidentify a change when no true change exists, or
assign a direction opposite of the true change in concentration that resulted
from matrix influences on extraction and laboratory method performance.
However, matrix-based models of recovery derived from a laboratory
performance dataset from multiple studies for national assessment, as used
herein, rather than time- and study-specific recoveries may introduce
uncertainty in recovery adjustments for individual samples that should be
considered in assessing change.
JEQ : JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL
QUALITY
Diunduh dari: https://www.agronomy.org/publications/jeq/abstracts/41/4/1238 .
. RISK ASSESSMENT OF AQUIFER STORAGE TRANSFER AND RECOVERY
WITH URBAN STORMWATER FOR PRODUCING WATER OF A POTABLE
QUALITY
Declan Page, Peter Dillon, Joanne Vanderzalm, Simon Toze, Jatinder Sidhu, Karen Barry,
Kerry Levett, Sarah Kremer and Rudi Regel.
JEQ. Vol. 39 No. 6, p. 2029-2039
The objective of the Parafield Aquifer Storage Transfer and Recovery research
project in South Australia is to determine whether stormwater from an urban
catchment that is treated in a constructed wetland and stored in an initially
brackish aquifer before recovery can meet potable water standards.
The water produced by the stormwater harvesting system, which included a
constructed wetland, was found to be near potable quality. Parameters
exceeding the drinking water guidelines before recharge included small
numbers of fecal indicator bacteria and elevated iron concentrations and
associated color.
This is the first reported study of a managed aquifer recharge (MAR) scheme
to be assessed following the Australian guidelines for MAR. A comprehensive
staged approach to assess the risks to human health and the environment of
this project has been undertaken, with 12 hazards being assessed.
A quantitative microbial risk assessment undertaken on the water recovered
from the aquifer indicated that the residual risks posed by the pathogenic
hazards were acceptable if further supplementary treatment was included.
Residual risks from organic chemicals were also assessed to be low based on
an intensive monitoring program.
Elevated iron concentrations in the recovered water exceeded the potable
water guidelines. Iron concentrations increased after underground storage but
would be acceptable after postrecovery aeration treatment. Arsenic
concentrations in the recovered water continuously met the guideline
concentrations acceptable for potable water supplies. However, the elevated
concentration of arsenic in native groundwater and its presence in aquifer
minerals suggest that the continuing acceptable residual risk from arsenic
requires further evaluation.
Diunduh dari: https://www.agronomy.org/publications/jeq/abstracts/39/6/2029.
ENERGY EFFICIENT INDOOR VOC AIR CLEANING WITH
ACTIVATED CARBON FIBER (ACF) FILTERS
Sidheswaran, M.A.; Destaillats, H.; Sullivan, D.P.; S. Cohn; Fisk, W.J.
Building and Environment, Issue 47, p.357-367 (2012)
This study explores the potential environmental and energy benefits of using
activated carbon fiber (ACF) filters for air cleaning in HVAC systems. The
parallel aims for the air cleaning system were to enable reduced indoor
exposures to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and to simultaneously allow
reduced rates and energy consumption for outdoor-air ventilation. We
evaluated the use of ACF media to adsorb VOCs from indoor air during
repeated simulated 12-hour to 24-hour periods of occupancy. In a cyclic
regeneration process, VOCs were desorbed from the ACF media and vented
outdoors to enable the next cycle of air cleaning. The VOC removal efficiency
of the ACF media was measured using a 9.5-cm2 ACF specimen exposed to a
mixture of VOCs that included toluene, benzene, o-xylene, 1-butanol,
limonene, undecane and formaldehyde at 29 oC and 30% relative humidity.
The concentrations of these model pollutants upstream of the ACF media
were in the range 20 to 30 ppb, to simulate realistic conditions. Velocities
through the ACF media were typical of those in normal particle filter systems
(~0.5 m s-1). Initial tests were conducted to develop a modified multicomponent Freundlich isotherm and estimate the maximum adsorption
capacity of the media, which was determined to be 90 mg VOC per gram of
ACF. Three different ACF regeneration methods were explored using relatively
cleaner outdoor air under ambient conditions, with this air humidified, and
with the filter heated. It was found that heating the ACF media to ~ 150 oC
by circulation of a DC current through the fibers for a short period (15
minutes) yielded the best VOC removal results, allowing for subsequent
consistent removal efficiencies of 70 – 80% for most VOCs. Regeneration with
unheated outdoor air was also effective and used less energy (subsequent
removal efficiency was 50 – 60% for most VOCs). ACF did not perform as well
in eliminating formaldehyde, for which a maximum removal of 25-30% was
achieved with heated regeneration. A mass balance model indicated that the
combination of ACF air cleaning and a 50% reduction in ventilation will
decrease indoor concentrations of VOCs by 60% to 80% and reduce
formaldehyde concentrations by 12% to 40%. Energy modeling indicated the
potential to reduce the energy required for heating and cooling of ventilation
air by 35% to almost 50%.
Diunduh dari: http://iepubs.lbl.gov/publications/1/energy-efficient-indoor-voc-aircleaning-activated-carbon-fiber-acf-filters.
SECONDARY POLLUTANTS FROM OZONE REACTIONS WITH
VENTILATION FILTERS AND DEGRADATION OF FILTER MEDIA
ADDITIVES
Destaillats, H.; Wenhao Chen; Apte, M.G.; Nuan Li; Spears, M.; Jérémie Almosni; Gregory
Brunner; Jianshun (Jensen) Zhang; Fisk, W.J.
Atmospheric Environment, Volume 45, Issue 21, p.3561-3568 (2011)
Prior research suggests that chemical processes taking place on the surface of
particle filters employed in buildings may lead to the formation of harmful
secondary byproducts. We investigated ozone reactions with fiberglass,
polyester, cotton/polyester and polyolefin filter media, as well as hydrolysis of
filter media additives. Studies were carried out on unused media, and on
filters that were installed for 3 months in buildings at two different locations
in the San Francisco Bay Area. Specimens from each filter media were
exposed to ~150 ppbv ozone in a flow tube under a constant flow of dry or
humidified air (50% RH). Ozone breakthrough was recorded for each sample
over periods of ~1000 min; the ozone uptake rate was calculated for an initial
transient period and for steady-state conditions. While ozone uptake was
observed in all cases, we did not observe significant differences in the uptake
rate and capacity for the various types of filter media tested. Most
experiments were performed at an airflow rate of 1.3 L/min (face velocity =
0.013 m/s), and a few tests were also run at higher rates (8 to 10 L/min).
Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, two oxidation byproducts, were quantified
downstream of each sample. Those aldehydes (m/z 31 and 45) and other
volatile byproducts (m/z 57, 59, 61 and 101) were also detected in real-time
using Proton-Transfer Reaction - Mass Spectrometry (PTR-MS). Low-ppbv
byproduct emissions were consistently higher under humidified air than under
dry conditions, and were higher when the filters were loaded with particles,
as compared with unused filters. No significant differences were observed
when ozone reacted over various types of filter media. Fiberglass filters
heavily coated with impaction oil (tackifier) showed higher formaldehyde
emissions than other samples. Those emissions were particularly high in the
case of used filters, and were observed even in the absence of ozone,
suggesting that hydrolysis of additives, rather than ozonolysis, is the main
formaldehyde source in those filters. Emission rates of formaldehyde and
acetaldehyde were not found to be large enough to substantially increase
indoor concentrations in typical building scenarios. Nevertheless, ozone
reactions on HVAC filters cannot be ignored as a source of low levels of
indoor irritants
Diunduh dari: http://iepubs.lbl.gov/publications/1/secondary-pollutants-ozone-reactionsventilation-filters-and-degradation-filter-media.
. Air Filter Materials, Outdoor Ozone and Building-Related Symptoms in
the BASE Study
Buchanan, I.S.; Mendell, M.J.; Mirer, A.G.; Apte, M.G.
Indoor Air, Volume 18, p.144-155 (2008)
Used ventilation air filters have been shown to reduce indoor environmental
quality and worker performance and increase symptoms, with effects stronger
after reaction of filters with ozone. We analyzed data from the U.S. EPA
Building Assessment Survey and Evaluation (BASE) study to determine if
ozone and specific filter media have interactive effects on building-related
symptoms (BRS). We analyzed a subset of 34 buildings from the BASE study
of 100 U.S. office buildings to determine the separate and joint associations
of filter medium (polyester/synthetic (PS) or fiberglass (FG)) and outdoor
ozone concentration (above/below the median, 67.6 mg/m3) with BRS.
Using logistic regression models and general estimating equations, we
estimated odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals for the association
of filter medium, ozone, and filter medium*ozone with BRS. Relative to
FG+low ozone, PS alone or high ozone alone each were significantly (p<0.05)
associated only with fatigue/difficulty concentrating (ORs = 1.93, 1.54,
respectively). However, joint exposure to both PS+high ozone, relative to
FG+low ozone, had significant associations with lower and upper respiratory,
cough, eye, fatigue, and headache BRS (ORs ranged from 2.26-5.90). Joint
ORs for PS+high ozone for lower and upper respiratory and headache BRS
were much greater than multiplicative, with interaction p-values < 0.10.
Attributable risk proportion (ARP) estimates indicate that removing both risk
factors might, given certain assumptions, reduce BRS by 26%-62%.
These findings suggest possible adverse health consequences from chemical
interactions between outdoor ozone and PS filters in buildings. Results need
confirmation before recommending changes in building operation. However, if
additional research confirms causality, ARP estimates indicate that appropriate
filter selection may substantially reduce BRS in buildings, especially in high
ozone areas.
JIA : JOURNAL OF INDOOR AIR
Diunduh dari: http://iepubs.lbl.gov/publications/183/air-filter-materials-outdoor-
. QUANTIFICATION OF THE ASSOCIATION OF VENTILATION
RATES WITH SICK BUILDING SYNDROME SYMPTOMS
Fisk, W.J.; Mirer, A.G.; Mendell, M.J.
Proceedings of the Indoor Air 2008, Copenhagen, Denmark, Paper 730
(2008)
Data from published studies were combined and
analyzed to develop best-fit equations and curves
quantifying the change in sick building syndrome
(SBS) symptom prevalence with ventilation rate. For
each study, slopes were calculated, representing the
fractional change in SBS symptom prevalence per unit
change in ventilation rate per person.
Values of ventilation rate, associated with each value
of slope, were also calculated. Linear regression
equations were fit to the resulting data points, after
weighting by study size. Integration of the
slopeventilation rate equations yielded curves of
relative SBS symptom prevalence versus ventilation
rate.
Based on these analyses, relative SBS symptom
prevalence increases approximately 23% (12% to
32%) as the ventilation rate drops from 10 to 5 L/sperson and relative prevalence decreases
approximately 29% (15% to 42%) as ventilation rate
increases from 10 to 25 L/s-person.
Diunduh dari: http://iepubs.lbl.gov/publications/161/quantification-association-
. CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE FOR HEALTH AND PRODUCTIVITY
IN OFFICES
Seppänen, O.; Fisk, W.J.
ASHRAE Transactions, Volume 111, Number 2, p.680-686 (2005)
. Indoor temperature is one of the fundamental characteristics of the indoor
environment. It can be controlled with different accuracy depending on the
building and its HVAC system. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the
potential benefits of improved temperature control, and apply the information
for a cost-benefit analyses. The indoor temperature affects several human
responses, including thermal comfort, perceived air quality, sick building
syndrome symptoms and performance in work.
In this study we focused on the effects of temperature on performance in
work. We collected and analyzed the literature relating the performance in
work and temperature.
The results of multiple studies are relatively consistent and show an average
relationship of 2% decrement in work performance per degree oC when the
temperature is above 25oC. Less data were available on the performance in
low temperatures. However, studies show a strong effect on manual tasks
with temperatures below thermal neutrality as soon as the temperature of
hands decreased due to control of blood flow.
When the estimated productivity decrement from elevated temperetures was
applied to data from a study of night-time ventilative cooling, the estimated
value of productivty improvements were 32 to 120 times greater than the cost
of energy to run fans during the night.
Diunduh dari: http://iepubs.lbl.gov/publications/1/control-temperature-health-andproductivity-offices .
. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL AND DECREASING NEW PARTICLE
FORMATION LEAD TO STRONG CLIMATE WARMING
R. Makkonen1, A. Asmi1, V.-M. Kerminen1,2, M. Boy1, A. Arneth3,4, P. Hari5, and
M. Kulmala
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 1515-1524, 2012
The number concentration of cloud droplets determines several
climatically relevant cloud properties. A major cause for the high
uncertainty in the indirect aerosol forcing is the availability of cloud
condensation nuclei (CCN), which in turn is highly sensitive to
atmospheric new particle formation.
Here we present the effect of new particle formation on
anthropogenic aerosol forcing in present-day (year 2000) and future
(year 2100) conditions. The present-day total aerosol forcing is
increased from −1.0 W m−2 to −1.6 W m−2 when nucleation is
introduced into the model. Nucleation doubles the change in aerosol
forcing between years 2000 and 2100, from +0.6 W m−2 to +1.4 W
m−2.
Two climate feedbacks are studied, resulting in additional negative
forcings of −0.1 W m−2 (+10% DMS emissions in year 2100) and
−0.5 W m−2 (+50% BVOC emissions in year 2100). With the total
aerosol forcing diminishing in response to air pollution control
measures taking effect, warming from increased greenhouse gas
concentrations can potentially increase at a very rapid rate.
Diunduh dari: http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/12/1515/2012/acp-12-15152012.html .
. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL METHODS
C. David Cooper
Published Online: 5 JAN 2007. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology
. Air pollution is defined as the presence in the outdoor atmosphere (ambient
air) of one or more contaminants in such quantities and for such duration as
to be harmful or injurious to human health or welfare, animal or plant life, or
property, or may unreasonably interfere with the enjoyment of life or
property. It is useful to study the causes and sources of the various air
pollutants, as well as their physical and chemical characteristics and these are
discussed. There are many different air pollutants, all with differing physical
and chemical characteristics, as well as a vast number and variety of air
pollution sources. Therefore, a good understanding of the pollutants and their
sources is necessary before a particular control technology can be selected
for best application to any particular situation.
Some of the most common pollutants have been well known for decades, and
continue to be emitted at rates exceeding millions of tons per year (in the
United States alone). These “traditional” air pollutants include particulate
matter (PM), sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), and carbon monoxide (CO). Another major pollutant is
ground-level ozone (O3). Ozone is not emitted directly; rather it is formed by
photochemical reactions in the atmosphere between NOx and VOCs. Other
important pollutants include lead (as leaded gasoline was phased out in the
1980s, the U.S. emissions of lead into the atmosphere dropped by 95% or
more), hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), including lead, mercury,
formaldehyde, benzene, and many others, several ozone-depleting
compounds (such as chlorofluorocarbons), and greenhouse gases, such as
carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). A brief review of the pollutants is
presented here. Air pollution regulations are discussed. Sampling and control
of air pollution is detailed. This includes information on the control of gaseous
emissions, particulate matter emissions and mobile source emissions.
Methods and sampling for control of odors is included.
Diunduh dari:
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/0471238961.01091803181503.a01.pub2/
abstract.
. Estimation of monetary value for vegetation's air purification
services supported by GIS - A case study in Xi'an, China
Ma Xinhui, Wu Bingfang ; Huang Huiping
Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, 2004. IGARSS '04. Proceedings. 2004 IEEE
International.
Volume: 7 . Page(s): 4629 - 4632 vol.7
In the present study an attempt has been made to evaluate
the value of vegetations' air purification supported by
Geographic Information System. Based on the theory and
model about valuation of vegetations' air purification services,
the material quantities and value of vegetations' air
purification in Xi'an city were achieved.
The results showed as the follows. Vegetations' air purification
services included CO2 fixation, O2 release, pollutants
absorption (SO2, HF, NOX), dust retention, and sterilization.
The total value of vegetations' air purification was 3426.35
million Yuan per year, which was six percent of Xian's GDP in
1999. Its value of CO2 fixation and O2 release was 2718.31
million Yuan per year, and that of absorbing the three
pollutants, SO2, HF, NOX, was 182.9031 million Yuan.
Their dust retention and sterilization value were 182.51 and
342.64 million Yuan respectively. Using GIS's capabilities for
inputting, storage, mapping, analysis and display of spatial
data, we obtained spatial map of vegetations' air purification
value in Xi'an and discussed the discrepancies of different
vegetation types' air purification services.
Diunduh dari:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1370188&url=http%3A%2F
%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D1370188.
. Environ Health Perspect. 1978 December; 27: 139–147.
Plants as bioassay systems for monitoring atmospheric pollutants
William A. Feder
Plant species act as natural bioindicators of atmospheric pollutants.
Plants can be used as bioassay systems for monitoring atmospheric
pollutants. Plant injury symptoms, altered growth and reproductive
pattern, changes in yield and/or productivity, and changes in species
distribution can be used singly or in combination as monitoring
devices.
The results must be accepted as semiquantitative, but within that
constraint, air quality can be sufficiently well defined to enable the
setting of air quality standards. Genetic variability of higher plant
species has yielded cultivars which display a range of tolerance to
gaseous and particulate atmospheric pollutants. Asexual propagation
of these cultivars provides pollutant-sensitive and pollutant-tolerant
plant material which can be grown on selected sites for observation.
Gymnosperm and Angiosperm species as well as species of lichens
and mosses have been used to establish field monitoring networks in
Europe, Canada, and the United States. White pine, shade tobacco,
mosses, and lichens have proven particularly useful as bioassay
tools. Pollen from pollutant-sensitive and pollutant-tolerant plant
cultivars has also been used as a sensitive laboratory bioassay tool
for studying air quality.
Epiphytic mosses are particularly efficient as monitors of particulate
pollutants, especially heavy metals, some of which may act as
chemical mutagens.
The cost, complexity, and lack of reliability of instrumented systems
for air quality monitoring make imperative the need to develop
successful plant bioassay systems for monitoring air quality.
Diunduh dari: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1637314/ .
. Tuesday, 24 January 2012: 8:30 AM
STREET CANYON VEGETATION VERY EFFECTIVELY IMPROVES URBAN
AIR QUALITY ROOM 339 (NEW ORLEANS CONVENTION CENTER )
Thomas A.M. Pugh, Lancaster Univ., Lancaster, Lancashire, United Kingdom; and A. R.
MacKenzie, J. D. Whyatt, and C. N. Hewitt
Street-level concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and particulate matter less than 10
μm in aerodynamic diameter (PM10), exceed public health standards in many cities,
causing increased mortality and morbidity.
Concentrations can be reduced by controlling emissions, increasing dispersion, or
increasing deposition rates, but relatively little attention has been paid to the latter as a
pollution control method. Both NO2 and PM10 are dry deposited onto surfaces at rates that
vary according to the nature of the surface; typically low for urban surfaces such as brick,
but much higher for vegetated surfaces. Previously, city-scale studies have suggested that
deposition to urban vegetation makes very modest improvements to urban air quality; less
than 5% even when the surface is fully covered by trees. However, these studies do not
take account of the interplay between urban form and vegetation. Street canyons limit
mixing between street-level air and the overlying urban boundary layer (UBL), effectively
trapping air within them, an effect which increases as the aspect (height/width) ratio
increases.
As a result, increasing deposition within street canyons is far more effective at reducing
pollutant concentrations than increasing deposition directly from the UBL. By developing
and applying a new model of deposition, mixing and chemistry within street canyons, we
show that increasing deposition by the planting of vegetation in street canyons,
particularly green walls, can reduce street-level concentrations by as much as 40% for NO2
and 60% for PM10. Our results suggest that the further limitations in mixing provided by
street trees (or increases in canyon aspect ratio) in many cases increase the deposition
efficiency sufficiently that they yield an improvement in in-canyon air quality, counter to
the results of mixing-only studies. Hence, we believe the benefits of vegetation for air
quality have been substantially undervalued. Importantly, whereas previous studies have
relied on large-scale urban greening to achieve a significant air quality improvement, we
show that these substantial local improvements can be gained through action at the scale
of a single street canyon alone.
Our results show that judicious use of vegetation promises to create an efficient urban
pollutant filter, yielding rapid and sustained improvements in urban air quality, and
highlight the importance of further research into the interactions of vegetation with the
urban atmosphere. lity, and highlight the importance of further research into the
interactions of vegetation with the urban atmosphere.
Diunduh dari:
https://ams.confex.com/ams/92Annual/webprogram/Paper196193.html.
Evaluating the Fate of Metals in Air Pollution Control Residues
from Coal-Fired Power Plants
Susan A. Thorneloe *†, David S. Kosson ‡, Florence Sanchez ‡, Andrew C.
Garrabrants ‡, and Gregory Helms
Environ. Sci. Technol., 2010, 44 (19), pp 7351–7356
Changes in emissions control at U.S. coal-fired power plants will shift metals
content from the flue gas to the air pollution control (APC) residues. To
determine the potential fate of metals that are captured through use of
enhanced APC practices, the leaching behavior of 73 APC residues was
characterized following the approach of the Leaching Environmental
Assessment Framework.
Materials were tested over pH conditions and liquid−solid ratios expected
during management via land disposal or beneficial use.
Leachate concentrations for most metals were highly variable over a range of
coal rank, facility configurations, and APC residue types. Liquid−solid
partitioning (equilibrium) as a function of pH showed significantly different
leaching behavior for similar residue types and facility configurations. Within a
facility, the leaching behavior of blended residues was shown to follow one of
four characteristic patterns.
Variability in metals leaching was greater than the variability in totals
concentrations by several orders of magnitude, inferring that total content is
not predictive of leaching behavior.
The complex leaching behavior and lack of correlation to total contents
indicates that release evaluation under likely field conditions is a better
descriptor of environmental performance than totals content or linear
partitioning approaches.
Diunduh dari: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es1016558.
DIMINISHING THE ROLE OF SULFUR OXIDES IN AIR POLLUTION
Abelson, P.H.
Journal Name: Science (Washington, D.C.); (United States); Journal 1967. Volume:
157:3794
Each year, in the US, more than 20 million tons of sulfur are discharged into
the atmosphere, most of it in the form of SO2. This gas is slowly converted
into sulfuric acid, which is corrosive to many materials, including metals,
building stones, and clothing.
The toxicity of SO2 and H2SO4 to plants and animals is controversial, as is
the effect of these compounds when they are inhaled along with other
components of smog. Principal targets for such restrictions are electric power
generating plants. These are a major source of air pollutants when they use
coal or residual oil as fuel. Five means of meeting the sulfur pollution problem
seem feasible.
One is to use fuel containing only small amounts of sulfur. A second is to
discharge the fumes from tall smokestacks (more than 200 meters high). A
third method is to add a material such as powdered limestone to the flue-gas
stream, following combustion, to convert the gaseous sulfur oxides into a
solid form. A fourth is to convert the coal to gas and to remove the sulfur
from the gas prior to combustion. A fifth method is to pass the flue gases
through a chemical processing plant, the sulfur being recovered in elemental
form or as H2SO4. Both the sulfur and the H2SO4 are consumed on a large
scale.
The price of sulfur has advanced sharply during the last year and is currently
quoted at close to $50 a ton. With present technology the value of the sulfur
recovered from coal-fired power plants would about offset the cost of
investment and operation of the processing plants.
A combination of better technology with a higher price for sulfur may
eventually convert a nuisance into a valued asset.
Diunduh dari:
THE RESEARCH OF CARBON ABSORBING ABILITY OF ROAD
GREENING PLANTS IN NORTH CHINA
Shuangjian Jiao; Chengcheng Hou ; Qunle Du ; Yanwei Li
Electrical and Control Engineering (ICECE), 2011 International Conference on 16-18
Sept. 2011. Page(s): 5598 - 5601
The CO2 emission of transportation is continuously increasing these
years. Authorized data proves that in 2007, the CO2 emission of
China transportation industry accounts for about 70% of the total
amount.
Widely planting high carbon sink plants within the scope of roads
land is an important part of low carbon roads.
Considering the daily carbon absorbing ability of one unit greenbelt
area together with the viability of greening plants, the carbon
absorbing ability of 33 kinds widely cultivated greening plants in
north china were studied and 17 of them were selected as the
ideal ones to be grown within the low-carbon road scope.
Furthermore, a road carbon absorption evaluation model was
established by setting the biomass, seasons ect. as the basic
factors. At the last, a greening design example for low carbon
roads was given.
The achievement of the paper has build foundation for low carbon
roads.
Diunduh dari:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6058115&url=http%3A%2F
%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D6058115 .
S.M. Seyyednjad, K. Majdian, H. Koochak and M. Niknejad, 2011.
AIR POLLUTION TOLERANCE INDICES OF SOME PLANTS
AROUND INDUSTRIAL ZONE IN SOUTH OF IRAN.
Asian Journal of Biological Sciences, 4: 300-305.
The study examined Air Pollution Tolerance Indices (APTI) of
four plant species around petrochemical station in south west
of Iran and compared with unpolluted area.
Four physiological and biochemical parameters; ascorbic
acid content (AA), leaf Relative Water Content (RWC), leaf
extract pH and total leaf chlorophyll (TCh) were used to
compute the APTI values.
The result showed that combining variety of these parameters
gave a more reliable result than those of individual parameter.
The result showed order of tolerance in polluted area as E.
camaldulensis (8/5)> A. lebbeck (8/1)> C. salignus (7/9)> P.
juliflora (5/8) and in unpolluted area as E. camaldulensis
(8/4)> A. lebbeck (6/7)> C. salignus (6/2)> P. juliflora (6/6).
These results show that in cases that APTI increase from
control site to polluted site improve the species tolerance to
pollution stress.
Diunduh dari: http://scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=ajbs.2011.300.305 .
. Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) of some tree species growing near
rail roads of Madurai, Tamil Nadu (India).
Thambavani DS, Kamala C
Department of Chemistry, Sri Meenakshi Government College for Women (A), Madurai- 625 002,
Tamil Nadu, India. sarala_dr@yahoo.co.in
Journal of Environmental Science & Engineering [2010, 52(4):285-290]
Biological monitoring and assessment studies due to urban-rail road pollutants were carried out using Air Pollution
Tolerance Index (APTI) of plants. Four plant (leaf) parameters-namely ascorbic acid, total chlorophyll, relative water content
and leaf extract pH were combined together in a formulation
signifying the APTI of plants.
APTI was calculated for five different species such as
Azadirachta indica, Delonix regia, Ficus religiosa, Pongamia
pinnata and Polyalthia longifolia growing in two different
areas, i.e. control area and along the railway track of Madurai,
Tamil Nadu (India).
The control site was selected in the college campus. None of
the four plant parameters indicated a consistent response to
pollutants. In the present study, Delonix regia and Pongamia
pinnata lost the tolerance towards air pollutants and became
more sensitive, but Azadirachta indica, Ficus religiosa, and
Polyalthia longifolia indicated high APTI values over control
area and hence considered as tolerant species.
The APTI of plants showed a marked gradation as the
pollutant load decreased from rail road to control area. The
APTI can be used as a good indicator of impact of the air
pollution on plants.
Diunduh dari: http://ukpmc.ac.uk/abstract/MED/22312796.
. Characteristics of Air Exclusion Systems vs. Chambers for Field
Air Pollution Studies
David M. Olszyk, Gerrit Kats, Philip J. Dawson, Andrzej Bytnerowicz, Joanne Wolf
and C. Ray Thompson
JEQ. 1986. Vol. 15 No. 4, p. 326-334
An air exclusion system was designed, constructed, and tested to determine
its effectiveness in studies of air pollutant effects on vegetation. The air
exclusion system was shown to be an effective alternative to open-top field
chambers for controlled exposures of air pollutants to low growing plants.
The system design included particulate and activated charcoal filters,
pressure-type blowers, a mixing manifold, and perforated inflatable ducts that
were positioned between rows of plants.
Tests with CO as a tracer gas indicated optimal system parameters for air
exclusion including: air flow of at least 0.944 m3 s−1 within the ducts, three or
four rows of holes on the side of each duct pointing 45° upward, 90° to the
side, and 45° downward from the center of the duct, four ducts per system,
and a hole size that provided an air velocity of 0.5 to 1.8 m s−1 over the plant
canopy.
Reductions of > 70% in ambient O3 concentrations could be achieved over
the plant canopy at 0.25 m above the ground with the air exclusion system
under optimum conditions (low ambient wind speed and high ambient ozone
concentrations). This was comparable to the reductions achieved with either
open-top or closed-top chambers.
A gradient in ozone concentrations was obtained within a single system by
delineating the ducts into three sections with different sized holes. Sulfur
dioxide was added to a modified system to provide a gradient of 0, 0.03,
0.07, and 0.15 µL SO2 L−1 over a winter growing season. No large
environmental differences were found between air exclusion systems and
open-top chambers vs. outside plots in the summer. In the fall and winter,
open-top chambers had higher air, leaf, and soil temperatures than air
exclusion sytems or outside plots.
Air speed over the plant canopy was higher with the air exclusion system than
in open-top chambers or outside plots.
Diunduh dari:
https://www.crops.org/publications/jeq/abstracts/15/4/JEQ0150040326.