Alterations of
Cardiovascular Function
Chapter 30
1
Diseases of the Arteries and Veins

Arteriosclerosis

Chronic disease of the arterial system


Abnormal thickening and hardening of the vessel
walls
Smooth muscle cells and collagen fibers migrate to
the tunica intima
2
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Arteriosclerosis
3
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Diseases of the Arteries and Veins

Atherosclerosis



Form of arteriosclerosis
Thickening and hardening is caused by
accumulation of lipid-laden macrophages in the
arterial wall
Plaque development
4
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Diseases of the Arteries and Veins

Atherosclerosis

Progression







Inflammation of endothelium
Cellular proliferation
Macrophage migration
LDL oxidation (foam cell formation)
Fatty streak
Fibrous plaque
Complicated plaque
5
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Atherosclerosis
6
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Atherosclerosis
7
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Diseases of the Arteries and Veins

Hypertension

Primary hypertension



Essential or idiopathic hypertension
Genetic and environmental factors
Affects 90% to 95% of individuals with hypertension
8
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Primary Hypertension
9
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Diseases of the Arteries and Veins

Secondary hypertension


Isolated systolic hypertension



Caused by a systemic disease process that raises
peripheral vascular resistance or cardiac output
Elevations of systolic pressure are caused by
increases in cardiac output, total peripheral
vascular resistance, or both
Complicated hypertension
Malignant hypertension
10
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Diseases of the Arteries and Veins

Complicated hypertension



Chronic hypertensive damage to the walls of
systemic blood vessels
Smooth muscle cells undergo hypertrophy and
hyperplasia with fibrosis of the tunica intima and
media
Malignant hypertension


Rapidly progressive hypertension
Diastolic pressure is usually >140 mm Hg
11
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Treatment for Hypertension
12
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Diseases of the Arteries and Veins

Orthostatic (postural) hypotension




Decrease in both systolic and diastolic blood
pressure upon standing
Lack of normal blood pressure compensation in
response to gravitational changes on the
circulation
Acute orthostatic hypotension
Chronic orthostatic hypotension
13
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Diseases of the Arteries and Veins

Aneurysm


Local dilation or outpouching of a vessel wall or
cardiac chamber
True aneurysms



Fusiform aneurysms
Circumferential aneurysms
False aneurysms

Saccular aneurysms
14
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Aneurysm
15
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Aneurysm
16
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Diseases of the Arteries and Veins

Thrombus formation





Blood clot that remains attached to the vessel wall
Thromboembolus
Thrombophlebitis
Arterial thrombi
Venous thrombi
17
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Diseases of the Arteries and Veins

Embolism

Bolus of matter that is circulation in the
bloodstream

Dislodged thrombus, air bubble, amniotic fluid,
aggregate of fat, bacteria, cancer cells, or a foreign
substance
18
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Diseases of the Arteries and Veins

Peripheral artery disease


Atherosclerotic disease of the arteries that perfuse
the limbs
Intermittent claudication

Obstruction of arterial blood flow in the iliofemoral
vessels resulting in pain with ambulation
19
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Peripheral Artery Disease

Thromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger disease)


Occurs mainly in young men who smoke
Inflammatory disease of peripheral arteries
resulting in the formation of nonatherosclerotic
lesions


Digital, tibial, plantar, ulnar, and palmar arteries
Obliterates the small and medium-sized arteries
20
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Peripheral Artery Disease

Thromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger disease)



Causes pain, tenderness, and hair loss in the
affected area
Symptoms are caused by slow, sluggish blood
flow
Can often lead to gangrenous lesions
21
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Peripheral Artery Disease

Raynaud phenomenon and Raynaud disease


Episodic vasospasm in arteries and arterioles of the
fingers, less commonly the toes
Raynaud phenomenon is secondary to other systemic
diseases or conditions


Collagen vascular disease (scleroderma), smoking, pulmonary
hypertension, myxedema, and environmental factors (cold and
prolonged exposure to vibrating machinery)
Raynaud disease is a primary vasospastic disorder of
unknown origin
22
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Diseases of the Veins

Varicose veins




A vein in which blood has pooled
Distended, tortuous, and palpable veins
Caused by trauma or gradual venous distention
Chronic venous insufficiency


Inadequate venous return over a long period due
to varicose veins or valvular incompetence
Venous stasis ulcers
23
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Diseases of the Veins

Deep venous thrombosis


Obstruction of venous flow leading to increased
venous pressure
Factors




Venous stasis
Venous endothelial damage
Hypercoagulable states
Post-thrombotic syndrome (PTS)
24
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Coronary Artery Disease



Any vascular disorder that narrows or occludes the
coronary arteries
Atherosclerosis is the most common cause
Risk factors





Dyslipidemia
Hypertension
Cigarette smoking
Diabetes mellitus
Obesity/sedentary lifestyle
25
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Coronary Artery Disease

Nontraditional risk factors

Markers of inflammation and thrombosis



C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, protein C, and
plasminogen activator inhibitor
Hyperhomocysteinemia
Infection
26
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Coronary Artery Disease

Myocardial ischemia





Local, temporary deprivation of the coronary
blood supply
Stabile angina
Prinzmetal angina
Silent ischemia
Angina pectoris
27
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Myocardial Ischemia
28
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Myocardial Ischemia
29
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Coronary Artery Disease

Acute coronary syndromes





Transient ischemia
Unstable angina
Sustained ischemia
Myocardial infarction
Myocardial inflammation and necrosis
30
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Myocardial Infarction
31
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Coronary Artery Disease

Myocardial infarction



Sudden and extended obstruction of the
myocardial blood supply
Subendocardial infarction
Transmural infarction
32
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Myocardial Infarction



Cellular injury
Cellular death
Structural and functional changes




Myocardial stunning
Hibernating myocardium
Myocardial remodeling
Repair
33
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Disorders of the Heart Wall

Disorders of the pericardium


Acute pericarditis
Pericardial effusion


Tamponade
Constrictive pericarditis
34
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Pericarditis
35
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Disorders of the Myocardium

Cardiomyopathies


Dilated cardiomyopathy (congestive
cardiomyopathy)
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy



Asymmetrical septal hypertrophy
Hypertensive (valvular hypertrophic) cardiomyopathy
Restrictive cardiomyopathy
36
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Cardiomyopathy
37
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Disorders of the Endocardium

Valvular dysfunction

Valvular stenosis



Valvular regurgitation




Aortic stenosis
Mitral stenosis
Aortic regurgitation
Mitral regurgitation
Tricuspid regurgitation
Mitral valve prolapse syndrome
38
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Valvular Dysfunction
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Valvular Dysfunction
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Acute Rheumatic Fever and
Rheumatic Heart Disease

Rheumatic fever


Diffuse, inflammatory disease caused by a
delayed immune response to infection by the
group A β-hemolytic streptococci
Febrile illness


Inflammation of the joints, skin, nervous system, and
heart
If left untreated, rheumatic fever causes
rheumatic heart disease
41
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Acute Rheumatic Fever and
Rheumatic Heart Disease

Rheumatic fever




Carditis
Polyarthritis
Chorea
Erythema marginatum
42
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Acute Rheumatic Fever and
Rheumatic Heart Disease
43
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Infective Endocarditis


Inflammation of the endocardium
Agents


Bacteria, viruses, fungi, rickettsiae, and parasites
Pathogenesis



“Prepared” endocardium
Blood-borne microorganism adherence
Proliferation of the microorganism
44
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Infective Endocarditis
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Cardiac Complications of AIDS




Myocarditis
Endocarditis
Pericarditis
Cardiomyopathy
46
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Heart Failure

General term used to describe several types of
cardiac dysfunction that result in inadequate
perfusion of tissues with blood-borne
nutrients
47
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Heart Failure

Congestive heart failure

Systolic heart failure


Inability of the heart to generate adequate cardiac
output to perfuse tissues
Diastolic heart failure

Pulmonary congestion despite normal stroke volume
and cardiac output
48
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Congestive Heart Failure
49
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Heart Failure

Right heart failure



Most commonly caused by a diffuse hypoxic pulmonary
disease
Can result from an increase in left ventricular filling
pressure that is reflected back into the pulmonary
circulation
High-output failure

Inability of the heart to supply the body with blood-borne
nutrients, despite adequate blood volume and normal or
elevated myocardial contractility
50
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Right Heart Failure
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Dysrhythmias




Disturbance of the heart rhythm
Range from occasional “missed” or rapid beats to
severe disturbances that affect the pumping ability of
the heart
Can be caused by an abnormal rate of impulse
generation or abnormal impulse conduction
Examples:

Tachycardia, flutter, fibrillation, bradycardia, premature
ventricular contractions (PVCs), premature atrial
contractions (PACs), asystole
52
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