Unit 1: Biology
“Unity and
Diversity”
WHAT YOU NEED
Nelson Biology VCE Units 1&2
Student Resource and Activity Manual 2014
Biozone (leave in classroom)
Nelson Biology Unit 1&2 Practical Guide (leave in
classroom)
Pens, Pencils, Highlighters, Ruler
Exercise Book
ASSESSMENT
• You will be examined against the following criteria in Unit
1&2;
• Knowledge of biological terms and conventions
• Understanding of key biological concepts, processes and
principles
• Application of biological understanding to unfamiliar
situations
• Evaluation of experimental procedures and results
• Analysis of information to solve problems, draw
conclusions and/or make predictions
ALSO...
You MUST attend 85% of classes (10 approved, 3 unapproved)
You MUST participate in all practical activities
To achieve an “S” ALL aspects of the
outcomes must be addressed
Topic tests will be conducted throughout
the semester
It is YOUR responsibility to ensure that
deadlines are met
ASSESSMENT
You will be assessed from A+ to E. If you
hand your work in late you will receive an
Ungraded mark.
You will be assessed through: practical
reports, multimedia presentations, oral
presentations and posters.
You will have a topic test at the conclusion
of each chapter and you will have an
examination at the end of each unit.
ASSESSMENT
Your report will contain the following:
- SAC 1: practical report average
- SAC 2: student designed practical
- SAC 3: PowerPoint presentation
Test average
Review questions
CANNOT STRESS THIS
ENOUGH!
If you are not going to make a
deadline for what ever reason come
and see me BEFORE the due date.
CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS
Review Questions are required to be completed for
each chapter of your book.
The answers for these questions must be well
presented and well researched using your books
to help you.
You will be graded A+ to UG
Questions
CHAPTER 1
ALL
CHAPTER 2
1, 2, 7, 8, 10, 14, 15, 17, 19, 24,
25, 26, 29
CHAPTER 3
1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15, 16
CHAPTER 4
2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 18, 19, 23, 26
CHAPTER 5
1, 2, 5, 7, 12, 14, 20, 21, 27, 29,
37, 42, 44, 49, 54
NEED HELP?
See me if you need help before due dates.
If you think you aren’t going to finish on time see
me before the due date
Having trouble: see me in class, or come to my
staffroom either at lunch or during a spare
period (staffroom 1)
As we near examination times I will run lunchtime
revision classes.
Ask questions
TIPS TO SUCCEED
PLAN!
Learn glossary terms!
Go over work in class!
Start homework early!
Revise your work – using different methods!
See me if you have any problems!!!
Your in VCE now!!!!!!
TOPIC 1: CELL STRUCTURE &
ORGANISATION
By the end of this topic, you should know and
understand:
Cell structure for both prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells.
Cell Organisation
Cell Functioning – organelle function
Biochemical processes – photosynthesis and cellular
respiration
The role of enzymes
5 kingdoms of life
Monera
Bacteria
(Ecoli)
Protista
Algae
(Amoeba)
Fungi
Fungi
(Mushrooms)
Plantae
Plants
(Gum Tree)
Animalia
Animals
(Humans)
Monera
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
TYPES OF ORGANISMS
Single celled – made up of one cell
Multicellular – made up of many cells
Every organism (multicellular)
is made up of:
1. Systems – a group of organs that work
together to perform a specific function
eg: Digestive system, reproductive system, root system.
2. Organs – a collection of tissues which
work together to ensure a particular
function is performed.
eg - Digestive System:
Stomach, Liver, small &
large Intestines
Stomach – made of tissues
such as epithelium, smooth
muscle cells and blood.
3.
Tissues – made up of specialised cells
that work together to perform a similar
Cardiac
function
Muscle Tissue
Red Blood Cells
Nerve Cells
Plant Cells
Cells.
• The basic structural & functional unit of any
organism.
• Can survive on its own (or has the potential to do so.)
• Has a highly organised structure, and has many
chemical processes and reactions occurring within it.
• Senses and responds to changes in its environment.
• Has the potential to reproduce itself.
• Differ in shape, size and activities depending on what
their role is.
Life span of cells.
•
-
The average life spans of some human cells:
Stomach cells – 2 days
Mature sperm cells – 2 – 3 days
Skin cells – 20 – 35 days
Red blood cells – about 120 days
Why this
is possible …
but these are generally not replaced
during a persons lifetime….
Cell Theory
• All living things are composed of one or
more cells.
• The cell is the smallest form of life.
• All cells come from
pre-existing cells,
via cell division.
There are two types of cells:
1. Prokaryotic
2. Eukaryotic.
The structure of these cells provides the
groupings of all organisms into 5 ‘kingdoms’.
Cells of living things
(ref: pg 6)
Prokaryotic Cells
Monera
Plantae
Eukaryotic Cells
Animalia
Protista
Fungi
Common to all cells….
• Each cell is a small compartment with an
outer boundary – cell membrane/ plasma
membrane - controls entry of dissolved
substances into and out of the cell.
• Inside each living cell is fluid – cytosol
• Cells also all contain genetic material
that controls all metabolic activitiesDNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
1. Prokaryotic Cells
•
•
•
•
–
•
•
•
Organisms known as prokaryotes
Simple internal structure.
No membrane-bound organelles
No membrane-bound nucleus
circular DNA
Ribosomes
Non cellulose cell wall
Kingdoms – Monera (bacteria)
Generalised Prokaryotic Cell
2. Eukaryotic Cells
• Single celled and multi-celled organisms
(eukaryotes).
• Complex internal structures
• Membrane-bound organelles in the
cytosol (compartmentalise functions)
• Membrane-bound nucleus (nuclear
membrane)
Kingdoms – Protista
- Plantae
- Animalia
- Fungi
A eukaryotic
.
animal cell
• A simple line drawing is the most common way to draw
a cell and its organelles.
A eukaryotic PLANT cell.
Glossary:
Your glossary should be in the back of your notebook.
Use the glossary in the text, and also the information
within the text to write your definition of the following
terms:
* System
* Organs
* Tissues
* Prokaryotic cells
* Eukaryotic cells
* Organelles
Units of measurement
•
•
•
•
Metre m = 1m
Millimetre mm= 10-3 m
Micrometre um = 10-6m
Nanometre nm = 10-9m
The discovery of cells…
• Several key events occurred to construct our
understanding of cells:
- Galileo Galilei (1609) put glass lenses in a cylinder and
found they magnified objects, studying eyes of an
insect.
- Robert Hooke (1665) used a microscope to observe
thinly sliced cork cells.
- Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674) created improved
microscopes so magnification was up to 300 times.
- Robert Brown (1831) used improve lenses to view plant
cells. He noticed the cells contained a nucleus.
Microscopes
• Light (optical) microscope
– Uses light rays to enlarge an image of a specimen through
glass lenses
– Advantage: can be used to view living cells (provides
magnification of up to 400 times), cheap
– Disadvantage: limited magnification; stains & dyes need to be
used to enhance cell detail but these kill the cell, samples
need to be very thin
• Electron microscope
– Uses an electron beam and electromagnets (instead of glass
lenses)
– Advantage: extremely clear resolution at a very large
magnification (up to 500,000 times)
– Disadvantage: specimens must be dead, expensive, images
black and white
Compound Light Microscopes
The ocular lens is
10x magnification.
If you use 4x
magnification
(objective) then
the total
magnification will
be 40x (10 x 4 =
40)
Always write the
magnification next
to your diagram.
Dissecting
Microscope
Laser
Scanning
Microscope
Electron Scanning microscopes
• Magnification
80,000 - 500,000x
Transmission
Electron
Microscope
Magnification (up to 1500x)
The ocular lens is 10x magnification. If
you use 4x magnification (objective)
then the total magnification will be 40x
(10 x 4 = 40)
Always write the magnification next to
your diagram.
Drawing diagrams in Biology
• Use Pencil
• Never colour-in diagrams (no shading)
• All diagrams should use proper titles
and labels
• Labels should
be written
horizontally
Practical Activity 1.1
Purpose:
• to revise and refine microscopic use.
• To explore some of the structures of
unicellular and multicellular organisms.
Cell size & Specialisation
• Cell specialisation = cells that have taken on
special features to enable them to carry out
their task. (eg: nerve cell, red blood cell…)
• Size is an important factor in the functioning
of cells – the cell’s volume to surface area
ratio is crucial.
- The cell must be able to efficiently
remove wastes and obtain its requirements.
The rate of outward movement of wastes and
inward movement of requirements will
influence the size to which the cell will grow.
Cell Size
• Cells are measured in:
* microns – micrometer (μm = 10-6 of a metre (0.000001m =
0.001mm or 1mm = 1000μm)
* nanometres – nm = 10-9 of a metre (or 1μm = 1000nm)
Why are cells generally small?
• Rheanon’s answer
Cells are usually very small because as a cell
grows it generally increases more quickly in
volume than in surface area, and it will
eventually reach a point where the inward
movement of requirements and the outward
movement of wastes across the surface area
are not fast enough to allow the cell to grow
any more and still function efficiently.
Surface – Area – To – Volume
Ratio
• The SA:V ratio of any object is obtained by dividing
its area by its volume.
• Area refers to the coverage of a surface - cm²
• Volume refers to the amount of space taken up by an
object - cm³
• The SA:V ratio of a shape identifies how many units
of external surface area are available to ‘supply’ each
unit of internal volume.
• In general, as a particular shape increases in size, the
SA:V ratio of the shape decreases.
• Cells with outfoldings can exchange matter with their
surroundings more rapidly than cells lacking this
feature.
‘Taking on different jobs’
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Boundary – plasma membrane and cell wall
Power Supply – mitochondria
Building Cell Structures – ribosomes
Supporting Cell Structures – cytoskeleton
Transport with the Cell – endoplasmic
reticulum
Packaging & Distribution – golgi apparatus
Recycling & Reuse – lysosomes
Moving in & out – endocytosis & exocytosis
Coordinating cell activities – nucleus
Coordinating cell activities -
Nucleus
• Control centre of eukaryotes.
• Coordinates all actions within the cell
• Main physical feature of a eukaryotic cell –
usually seen as a dark organelle.
• Separated from the rest of cell by nuclear
membrane/envelope (double membrane).
• Contains DNA (Codes for the
production of proteins that carry out
different functions within a cell),
and the
nucleolus
• Mature RBC – no nuclei
Nucleolus
• Made of protein and ribosomal RNA
(ribonucleic acid)
• Manufactures
proteins in the cell.
‘Taking on different jobs’
1a. Boundary - Plasma membrane
• Outermost barrier in animal
cells
• Found in all living cells
(prokaryotes and eukaryotes)
• Seen using an electron
microscope
• Made of lipid (fat) molecules
with tiny protein channels
passing through it to allow
movement of molecules
(nutrients & wastes) in and out
of cell.
1b. Boundary
- Cell Wall
• Outermost barrier in plant, fungi, bacterial and most
algae cells. (not present in animal cells)
• Provides extra support, shape & protection. (some larger
plants have a double cell wall – ie. Cells in tree trunk)
• Cell wall is made from:
* Plants = cellulose
* Fungi = chitin
* Bacteria =
proteins & polysaccharides
(peptidoglycan)
• When a plant cell’s
contents die, it leaves a
hollow tube where nutrients and water can flow.
Cytoplasm
• The fluid, dissolved substances and organelles
within the cell between the plasma membrane
& the nuclear membrane, where all the
activities are carried out.
• The fluid is called cytosol.
2. Power house- Mitochondria
• Only in eukaryotes, seen with an electron microscope
• Site of cellular respiration (aerobic respiration)
releasing energy for the cell (form of ATP).
Cellular respiration equation:
• Glucose + Oxygen
• C6H12O6 +
6O2
Carbon dioxide + water + heat energy
6C02
+
6H2O
The inner membranes (cristae):
* folded to provide a large
surface area for the reaction to occur.
* contain an enzyme that
catalyses the reaction.
Energy production
• The energy released by mitochondria is
called ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
• ATP (chemical energy) powers all cell
processes and therefore keeps us alive
• Where would mitochondria be highly
prevalent?
3. Building cell structures -
Ribosomes
• Present in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
(not membrane bound)
• Very small organelles composed of
protein and RNA (ribonucleic acid)
• Manufacture proteins from amino acids
– helps cells grow, repair damage etc
• Scattered throughout the cells
cytoplasm OR
• Can be attached to
endoplasmic reticulum
• Seen using an electron
microscope
4. Supporting cell structure - Cytoskeleton
• internal framework in cytoplasm- shape and structure
Microtubules
• Hollow cylindrical tubes, scaffold
• ‘rails’ for organelles to move on.
• Constant mixing and movement of the cytoplasm =
cytoplasmic streaming
• Can come apart and
Reassemble.
Microfilaments –
*Solid & contractile
*allow the cell to
change shape.
(eg: muscle cells)
• Intermediate filaments provide tensile strength for
attachment of cells to each other to support long
nerve cell extensions and maintain tissue shape.
Only in animal cells - Centrioles
• Replicate before division to produce two pairs
• Give rise to spindle fibres which chromosomes attach
to
• When spindle fibres contract, chromosomes are
moved around the cell
5. Transport within the cell -
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Only present in eukaryotes
• An Intracellular (inside cell) transport system.
• A system of membranous channels, allows substances
to move through the cell.
• Small sacs (vesicles) can be pinched off, allowing
molecules to be transported
around the cell to other
organelles
* Two types – rough & smooth.
(i) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum.
• Ribosomes are stuck to the ER making it look rough.
• Proteins produced can move directly into ER and move
around the cell.
• Membrane factory
• Excretory proteins – hormones, enzymes – move to other
cells
(ii) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Has no ribosomes attached to its
membranes.
• Syntheises fats, phospholipids, steroids…
• transports proteins – vesicles ‘break off’
ends.
6. Packing & Distribution - Golgi
• Only in eukaryotes
• Works closely with smooth
E.R.
• ‘Packages’ and stores
molecules (proteins, such as
digestive enzymes) for their
release.
• Consists of a system of
stacks of membranes. The
ends ‘pinch off’ into vesicles,
which can then move to the
plasma membrane and fuse
for release outside the cell.
Apparatus
7. Recycling & reuse –
Lysosomes
(AKA – ‘suicide sacs’)
• Only found in eukaryotes
• Formed by the Golgi Apparatus.
• Contains digestive enzymes which split large chemical
compounds into simpler usable molecules.
• Membrane breaks, enzymes released to destroy the cell
by digesting the contents.
• ‘Apoptosis’ – programmed cell death when the cells are
old or no longer needed
• Syndactyly – results if apoptosis doesn’t occur.
8a. Moving in – Endocytosis &
8b. Moving out - Exocytosis.
• Molecules must be able to move into the cell
(nutrients) and out of the cell (proteins/wastes).
• Exocytosis – a small membrane-bound vesicle joins to
the plasma membrane, and releases its contents to
the outside of the cell.
• Endocytosis – the plasma membrane sinks and forms a
vesicle enclosing the material bringing it into the cell.
• When the material is a solid food = phagocytosis.
When the material is in solution = pinocytosis.
Transportation within a cell.
Specialised structures in Plants.
1. Adding colour - Plastids
• A group of organelles containing colour pigments.
Chromoplasts
• carotenoid pigments (red-yellow)
• turn green as they mature (produce chlorophyll)
• found in flowers and leaves.
Leucoplasts
• colourless.
• amyplasts - store starch grains.
• found in roots (also root vegetables)
Chloroplasts
•
•
•
•
only found in plant and algae cells
contain the green chlorophyll pigment.
absorbs light energy for use in photosynthesis.
Grana – folded membrane layers (lamellae) – provide large surface
area where chlorophylls are located.
• Stroma – fluid between the grana.
• Photosynthesis occurs in the stroma and thylakoid membrane
system.
Chlorophyll
• Green part of plants (plastid).
• internal membranes are folded - maximise
surface area.
• Absorbs sunlight
• Photosynthesises – the
chemical reaction using sun
energy to convert carbon
dioxide and water into
glucose and oxygen.
Photosynthesis reaction:
•
•
Carbon dioxide + water
6CO2 + 12H2O
Glucose + oxygen + water
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
2. Moving things about – Xylem & Phloem.
• move water and nutrients around a plant in vascular tissue
• series of hollow tubes.
• give strength to plant stems and tree trunks.
Xylem
•
•
•
•
•
Water & minerals
Roots to leaves (UP)
Tracheids and vessels
Dead & hollow cells
Strengthened with lignin rings
Phloem
•
sugars in solution (from
photosynthesis)
• sieve & companion cells
• Sugar flows through sieve cells/tubes
• Companion cells control sieve cells
Vascular tissue
3. Storage facility - Vacuoles
• Membrane bound fluid filled spaces
• Storage facility for various substances – mainly water
and nutrients
• expand - up to 90% of the cell’s volume.
• cell wall prevents the plant cell from exploding.
• Generally large in plants
• In animals - food vacuoles are
involved with intercellular digestion.
Moving from place to place -
Active Movement.
Paramecium
• Cilia – hair like structures that propel the
cell forward. However, they are often found
lining ducts, along which materials can be
moved up or down by means of their rapid
and rhythmical beating. (eg: lungs)
• Flagellum – a long whip-like tail that pushes
cell forward. Attached to cell membrane.
(eg: sperm)
• Corkscrew movement (prokaryote)
• Wavy movement (eukaryote)
• Both contain microtubules
–
Passive Movement.
Moving from place to place
• cells move by floating in something such
as water or plasma (eg: red blood cells)
Glossary Terms:
Add these terms to your glossary.
* Cellular Respiration
* Vesicle
* Apoptosis
* Enzymes
* Spindle Fibres
* Intercellular
* Intracellular
* Stroma
* Thylakoid
* Lignin
* Cytoplasmic Streaming
Last Slide