Welcome
Welcome to BIO 204 Anatomy & Physiology II
Mrs. Wendy Rappazzo
Associate Professor, Biology
Textbook Features
 Important features of the textbook
 Learning Outcomes
 Illustrations and
Photos
 Pronunciation Guides
 Checkpoint Questions
 The A&P Top 100
 Tips & Tricks
 Clinical Notes
 Chain Link Icons
 End-of-Chapter Study
and Review Materials
 Systems Overview
Section
 System in Perspective
Summaries
 Colored Tabs
 End-of-Book
Reference Sections
Learning Supplements
 Supplements
 The InterActive Physiology® (IP) CD
 HCC Portal for Mastering A and P Required &
Supplemental Material (very helpful)
 Get Ready for A&P! (available online)
 Atlas of the Human Body
 A&P Applications Manual
 Study Guide (optional)
 Faculty website:
Class & Lab Supplies
● 2 – 3” 3 ring binder (recommended 1 binder
per unit) with extra paper
● pencils, pens, colored pencils, highlighter
● index cards
● lab folder with prongs or binder
Anatomy & Physiology Review
Concepts from
BIO 099/119 & BIO 203
(see also BIO 099/119 review from
BIO 203 website)
Chemistry Review – Chapter 2
 Chemistry Review
Elements of the Human Body
Elements of the Human Body
Elements of the Human Body
Elements of the Human Body
Chemistry Review
Inorganic
Organic
Water
CHO
Electrolytes
Lipids
Acids/Bases
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
pH and Homeostasis
 pH
 The concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution
 pH Scale: 0 - 14
 A balance of H+ and OH—
 Pure water = 7.0
< 7 = acidic
> 7 = alkaline
 pH of human blood
 Ranges from 7.35 to 7.45
pH and Homeostasis
 pH Scale
 Has an inverse relationship with H+
concentration
 More H+ ions mean lower pH, less H+ ions mean
higher pH
pH and Homeostasis
FIGURE 2–9 pH and Hydrogen Ion Concentration.
Carbohydrates
Important Concepts:
We only burn glucose for fuel –
Glycogen is stored in the liver and skeletal muscles
Glycogenesis: making glycogen from glucose
Glycogenolysis: breaking glycogen down into glucose
Gluconeogenesis: making glucose from amino acids &
glycerol
Lipids
Important Concepts:
Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated
Unsaturated can be omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids – important health
implications
Fatty acids & Glycerol are the preferred fuel source for many tissues.
Proteins
 Proteins are the most abundant and
important organic molecules
 Contain basic elements : C,H,O and N
 Basic building blocks
 20 amino acids: essential vs. nonessential
Proteins
Enzymes are catalysts
 Proteins that are not changed or used up in the
reaction
– specific — will only work on limited types of substrates
– limited — by their saturation
– regulated — by other cellular chemicals
Nucleic Acids
 Nucleic acids are large organic molecules, found
in the nucleus, which store and process
information at the molecular level
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
 Codes for every protein
 Double stranded
 ATCG
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
 Important for protein synthesis
 Single stranded
 AUCG
ATP
 Nucleotides can be used to
store energy
 Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
-Two phosphate groups; di- = 2
 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Three phosphate groups; tri- = 3
 ADP + P ↔ATP + E
 ATPase : The enzyme that catalyzes
phosphorylation (the addition of a
high-energy phosphate group to a
molecule)
-
A Review of Cells
 Cell surrounded by a watery
medium known as the extracellular
fluid (interstitial fluid)
 Plasma membrane separates
cytoplasm from the ECF
 Cytoplasm - Cytosol = liquid
-contains organelles
BioFlix Tour of Animal Cell
Organelles and the Cytoplasm
 Cytosol (fluid)
 Dissolved materials:
– nutrients, ions, proteins, and waste products
 High potassium/low sodium
 High protein
 High carbohydrate/low amino acid and fat
 Organelles
 Structures with specific functions
Organelles Review
Organelles Review
Mitochondria
Aerobic metabolism (cellular
respiration)
 Mitochondria use O2 to break down
food and produce ATP
 G + O2 + ADP  CO2 + H2O + ATP
Glycolysis:
glucose to pyruvic acid
net gain 2 ATP
when anaerobic= lactic acid
Transition Reaction:
pyruvic acid to acetyl Co-A
Mitochondria
Aerobic metabolism (cellular
respiration)
 Mitochondria use O2 to break down
food and produce ATP
 G + O2 + ADP  CO2 + H2O + ATP
Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA or Krebs
cycle):
– Acetyl CoA to CO2 (in matrix) & reduced
coenzymes
Electron transport chain
– inner mitochondrial membrane
H+ ions used to make ATP
The Nucleus
DNA
 Instructions for every protein in
the body
 Gene
 DNA instructions for one protein
 Genetic code
 The chemical language of DNA
instructions:
– sequence of bases (A, T, C, G)
 Triplet code:
– 3 bases = 1 amino acid
Cell Differentiation
 All cells carry complete DNA instructions for all
body functions
 Cells specialize or differentiate
 To form tissues (liver cells, fat cells, and neurons)
 By turning off all genes not needed by that cell
 All body cells, except sex cells, contain the same
46 chromosomes
 Differentiation depends on which genes are
active and which are inactive
Cell Division
Mitosis and Cancer
Mitosis and Cancer
Mitosis and Cancer
Protein Synthesis
 The Role of Gene Activation in Protein
Synthesis
 The nucleus contains chromosomes
 Chromosomes contain DNA
 DNA stores genetic instructions for proteins
 Proteins determine cell structure and function
Protein Synthesis
 Transcription
 Copies instructions from DNA to mRNA (in nucleus)
 Translation
 Ribosome reads code from mRNA (in cytoplasm)
 Assembles amino acids into polypeptide chain
 Processing
 By RER and Golgi apparatus produce protein
Functions of the Plasma Membrane
Physical Barrier
Regulates exchange
 Ions and nutrients enter
 Wastes eliminated and
cellular products released
Monitors the environment
 Extracellular fluid
composition
 Chemical signals
Structural support
 Anchors cells and tissues
Membrane Transport
 The plasma (cell) membrane is a barrier, but
 Nutrients must get in
 Products and wastes must get out
 Permeability determines what moves in and out of a
cell, and a membrane that
 Lets nothing in or out is impermeable
 Lets anything pass is freely permeable
 Restricts movement is selectively permeable
Membrane Transport
 Plasma membrane is selectively permeable
 Allows some materials to move freely
 Restricts other materials
 Selective permeability restricts materials based
on




Size
Electrical charge
Molecular shape
Lipid solubility
Membrane permeability
Diffusion
 Diffusion is a Function of the Concentration
Gradient & Kinetic Energy
 Solutes move down a concentration gradient until?
Factors Affecting Diffusion
 Distance the particle has to move
 Molecule size
 Temperature
 Gradient size
 Electrical forces
Filtration
Movement of molecules due to a pressure
gradient (net filtration pressure)
Osmotic Pressure: pressure which holds
water (absorption): in blood mainly
due to plasma proteins
Hydrostatic Pressure: pressure which
pushes molecules out of blood
(filtration)
Tonicity
 A cell in a hypotonic
solution:
 Gains water
 Ruptures (hemolysis of red
blood cells)
 A cell in a hypertonic
solution:
 Loses water
 Shrinks (crenation of red
blood cells)
Carriers and Vesicles
 Carrier-Mediated
Transport
 Facilitated diffusion
 Specificity:
 Saturation limits:
 Regulation:
Carriers and Vesicles
 Carrier-Mediated Transport
 Cotransport
 Two substances move in the same direction at the
same time
 Countertransport
 One substance moves in while another moves out
Carriers and Vesicles
 Carrier-Mediated Transport
 Active transport
 Active transport proteins:
– move substrates against concentration gradient
– require energy, such as ATP
– ion pumps move ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+)
– exchange pump countertransports two ions at the same
time
Carriers and Vesicles
Active transport
Sodium-potassium
exchange pump
sodium ions (Na+) out,
potassium ions (K+) in
-1 ATP moves 3 Na+ and 2 K+
Carriers and Vesicles
 Active transport Secondary active transport
-Na+ concentration gradient drives
glucose transport
– ATP energy pumps Na+ back out
Carriers and Vesicles
 Vesicular Transport (or bulk transport)
 Materials move into or out of cell in vesicles
 Endocytosis (endo- = inside) is active transport using ATP:
– receptor mediated
– pinocytosis
– phagocytosis
 Exocytosis (exo- = outside)
– Granules or droplets are released from the cell
Carriers and Vesicles
Endocytosis
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
 Receptors (glycoproteins) bind target molecules (ligands)
 Coated vesicle (endosome) carries ligands and receptors
into the cell
Carriers and Vesicles
Endocytosis
 Pinocytosis
 Endosomes “drink” extracellular fluid
 Phagocytosis
 Pseudopodia (psuedo- = false, pod- = foot)
 Engulf large objects in phagosomes
Carriers and
Vesicles
Figure 3–22 Phagocytosis.
Carriers and Vesicles
Exocytosis
 Is the reverse of endocytosis
 Secretion
Transmembrane Potential
 Interior of plasma membrane is slightly negative,
outside is slightly positive
 Unequal charge across the plasma membrane is
transmembrane potential or RMP
 Resting potential ranges from –10 mV to
–100 mV, depending on cell type
Transmembrane Potential
 Determined mainly by the unequal distribution of
Na+ & K+
 The cell's interior has a greater concent. of K+
and the outside has a greater concent. of Na+
 At rest the plasma membrane is relatively
impermeable to Na+ and freely permeable to K+
Transmembrane Potential
The cell has 2 types of channels:
1.) Passive (leaky)
2.) Gated
RMP animation (NS I: membrane potential page 12/16)
Transmembrane Potential
 More K diffuses out of
the cell than Na
diffuses into the cell
 Results in a loss of +
charges from the cell
= negative RMP
Cell is polarized.
Transmembrane Potential
If too much K left the cell it
would become too negative =
hyperpolarize
If Na was allowed to
accumulate inside the cell it
would become less negative
(more positive) or depolarize.
Also entrance of Na into the cell
would change the tonicity of
the cell
Transmembrane Potential
The Na-K pump
functions to
maintain the
osmotic balance
& membrane
voltage
Transmembrane Potential
When stimulus
applied:
Gated Na+
channels open =
depolarization
Gated K+ channels
open so K+ leaves
= repolarization
Transmembrane Potential
How would
changing
blood/plasma
Na+ & K+ levels
change this
process?
By changing
diffusion gradient
Transmembrane Potential
K+ leaves for
repolarization
because?
Hypokalemia?
Hyperkalemia?
Muscle Review
Muscle Review
Neuron Review




Neurons need a constant supply of?
Amitotic
Conduct nerve impulses – control
Blood-Brain barrier important to regulate
environment of CNS
barrier of astrocytes
CNS
 Functions of?





Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Hypothalamus
Pons
Medulla Oblongata
CNS
 Cranial Nerves:
 Glossopharyngeal #?,
mixed or motor?
 Vagus #?, mixed or
motor?
ANS
 Parasympathetic
Releases AcH at
cholinergic receptors
 Nicotinic
 Muscarinic
 75% of all parasym.
carried by?
Effects?
 Sympathetic
Releases NE at
adrenergic receptors
 β1, β2, β3
 α 1, α 2,
 Information carried via
ganglia & adrenal
medulla
 Effects?
Hormones - Yikes
Pituitary Gland
Anterior
Posterior
GH
CHO Sparing
Anabolic
Hormone
ADH
↓ urine output
TSH
Release of T4/T3
Oxytocin
Uterine
contractions
ACTH
Release of
Aldosterone &
Cortisol
Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands
Thyroid
Parathyroid
T4/T3
● Metabolic Hormones
● Calorigenic
● Stimulates adrenergic
receptors
Calcitonin
↓ plasma Ca++ levels
PTH
↑ plasma Ca++
levels
Pancreas
Beta Cells
Insulin
Alpha Cells
↓plasma glucose levels
▪ hypoglycemic
▪ glycogenesis
▪ lipogenesis
▪ protein synthesis
Glucagon
↑ plasma glucose
levels
▪ hyperglycemic
▪ glycogenolysis
▪ gluconeogenesis
▪ lipolysis
Adrenal Gland
Adrenal Cortex
Aldosterone
↓plasma K+, ↑ plasma
Na+ levels
▪ ↓Na+ (& H2O) loss in
urine
▪ ↑BV & BP
Cortisol
“stress hormone”
↑ plasma glucose & FA
levels
▪ immune suppressant
Adrenal Medulla
Epi & NE
↑ plasma glucose &
FA levels
▪ hyperglycemic
▪ glycogenolysis
▪ gluconeogenesis
▪ lipolysis
▪ fight or flight
▪ bind to adrenergic
receptors
Gonads
Ovaries
Testes
Estrogen
▪ secondary sex
characteristics
▪ maintains bone
density
▪ ↑HDL cholesterol
Progesterone
▪ mainly targets uterus
Testosterone
▪ anabolic
▪ ↑ hematocrit
▪ secondary sex
characteristics
Other Hormones from Non-Endocrine
Organs
Stomach
Small Intestine
Gastrin
▪ enhances digestion
▪ stimulates
production of gastric
juice
CCK
▪ enhances digestion
▪ stimulates release of
enzyme-rich
pancreatic juice
Ghrelin
▪ stimulates appetite
▪ lipogenesis
Secretin
▪ stimulates release of
HCO3-rich pancreatic
juice
Other Hormones from Non-Endocrine
Organs
Heart
ANF (ANP)
Kidney
▪ ↑ Na+ excretion at
kidneys
▪ ↑ urine output
▪ ↓ BV & BP
Adipocytes
Leptin
↑ use of fat for fuel
suppresses appetite
EPO
▪ stimulates production
of RBCs
Calcitriol
▪ enhances absorption
of Ca++
Homeostasis Review
Negative Feedback
Positive Feedback
▪ reverses change
▪ enhances change
○ intrinsic (autoregulation)
○ extrinsic – nervous/endocrine
systems
▪ examples?
▪ examples?