CHAPTER 16
INTEREST GROUPS
James Madison in the Federalist Papers warned against “a number of citizens, whether
amounting to a majority or minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some
common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens or to
the permanent and aggregate interest of the community.” Madison called these groups
“factions.” Today we might call them interest groups.
Thomas Hobbes and other early political philosophers discussed the designs of
selfinterest among men in society—beasts in competition.
What Are Interest Groups?
The Origins and Development of American Interest Groups
What Do Interest Groups Do?
What Makes an Interest Group Successful?
importance of citizen participation in political or civic interest groups—
the changing face of interest group politics in the U.S.—
“bowling alone”—
social capital—
civic virtue—
What Are Interest Groups?
interest groups—
disturbance theory—
Kinds of Organized Interests
Public Interest Groups—
Common Cause—
MoveOn.org—
Economic Interest Groups—
business groups (including trade and professional groups)—
labor organizations—
most fully and effectively organized of all types of interest
groups—
reason for existence—
Governmental Units—
state and local interests—
federal earmarks—
Political Action Committees—
1974 amendments to the federal Election Campaign Act—
PACs—
nature and characteristics of PACs—
Multi-Issue Versus Single-Issue Interest Groups—
multi-issue groups (and examples)—
single-issue groups (and examples)—
Profiles of Selected Interest Groups (Table 16.1)—
The Origins and Development of American Interest Groups
James Madison and factions—
concern over any one individual or group of individuals becoming too
influential—
role of decentralizing power—
National Groups Emerge (1830-1889)
effect of the improvement of communications networks—
Women’s Christian Temperance Union—
The Grange—
larger role of business interest after the civil war—
oil, steel, and sugar industries—
railroad industry—
lobbyist—
Progressive Era (1890-1920)
changes by the 1890s—
Progressive movement—
national government begins to regulate business—
Organized Labor—
American Federation of Labor—
open shop laws—
1914 Clayton Act—
Business Groups—
National Association of Manufacturers (NAM)—
President Wilson denounces NAM’s tactics—
trade associations—
U.S. Chamber of Commerce—
1928 FTC investigation of lobbying tactics of business groups—
The Rise of the Interest Group State
rise of the Progressive spirit in the 1960s and 1970s—
ACLU—
NAACP—
AARP—
Common Cause—
Public Citizen, Inc.—
Ralph Nader—
Unsafe at Any Speed—
“Nader Network”—
AARP—
Conservative Response: Religious and Ideological Groups
conservative response to Progressive groups of the 1960s and 1970s—
1978, Jerry Falwell and the “Moral Majority”—
1990, Pat Robertson and the Christian Coalition—
Bush and his Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives—
National Rifle Association (NRA)—
Focus on the American Family—
Students for Academic Freedom—
Business Groups, Corporations, and Associations
some business people dissatisfied with NAM or Chamber of
Commerce—
Business Roundtable—
Kyoto Protocol—
corporations with their own government affairs departments also
hire D.C.-based lobbyists—
527 groups—
527 groups’ 2004 contributions—
congressional family members as well as former members of
Congress work as lobbyists—
Organized Labor
Labor Union Membership (Figure 16.2)—
American Federation of Labor (AFL) merges with Congress of
Industrial Organizations (CIO) in 1955—
AFL-CIO—
labor members (and clout) diminishes—
electoral weaknesses evident in 2004 presidential primaries—
split at 2005 annual AFL-CIO meeting—
Service Employees International Union (SEIU)—
Change to Win Coalition—
Andrew Stern—
James Hoffa—
What Do Interest Groups Do?
what interests groups do—
working for their members’ interests—
NAACP efforts for its members—
downside to interest groups—
interest groups play important role in U.S. politics—
Lobbying
lobbying—
how term came about—
hiring lobbying firms—
Groups and Lobbyists Using Each Lobbying Technique (Table 16.2)—
Lobbying Congress—
efforts to reform lobbying—
wide variety of lobbying techniques—
outright payment of money (bribery)—
former members and staff as lobbyists—
skills of lobbyists—
developing close relations with members of Congress—
symbiotic relations—
lobbyists and representatives who share interests—
lobbyists reputation for fair play and accurate information—
Leaving Congress for Lobbying Careers (Figure 16.4)—
Tom DeLay’s K Street Project—
Lobbying the Executive Branch—
importance and frequency of lobbying executive branch increasing
because of what?—
many potential access points—
influencing policy decisions at formulation and implementation
stages—
importance of ability to provide decision makers with important
information and sense of public opinion—
interest groups and regulatory agencies—
monitoring the implementation of laws or policies—
Lobbying the Courts—
types of efforts to lobby the courts—
amicus curiae briefs—
influencing nominations to federal courts—
paying for “informational conferences”—
Scalia, golf, and the Federalist Society—
Grassroots Lobbying—
grassroots lobbying—
efforts as early as 1840s—
efforts to persuade ordinary voters to serve as advocates—
expensive, carefully targeted television ads—
Protests and Radical Activism—
Boston Tea Party—
Shays’s Rebellion—
anti-war protestors—
other protests—
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA)—
Operation Rescue—
Regulating Lobbying Practices—
lobbying unregulated for first 150 years of U.S. history—
Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act of 1946—
ACLU blocks expansion of lobbying in courts on First
Amendment grounds—
Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1996:
1)
2)
3)
4)
how many lobbyists registered as of June 2005?—
how much money spent on lobbying for every member of
Congress?—
Jack Abramoff—
“GOP culture of corruption”—
1978 Ethics in Government Act (Table 16.3)—
restrictions on executive branch employees becoming lobbyists—
Election Activities
Candidate Recruitment and Endorsements—
EMILY’s List—
WISH List—
Nancy Pelosi—
Getting Out the Vote—
Rating the Candidates or Office Holders—
Political Action Committees—
what PACs allow—
role of PAC money—
significance of PACs for congressional incumbents—
What Makes an Interest Group Successful?
pressure politics—
what all the groups have in common—
shaping the public agenda—
groups claim credit—
getting leaders of groups elected—
phenomena that contribute to interest groups’ successes:
1) leaders
2) patrons and funding
3) members
Leaders—
role of leaders—
Patrons and Funding—
patron—
expense of activities of interest groups—
Members—
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three kinds of members in interest groups:
1)
2)
3)
“upper-class bias”—
characteristics of interest group members—
Potential Versus Actual Interest Groups Members (Table 16.4)—
overlapping memberships—
collective good—
free rider problem—
factors that overcome the free rider problem—
why members join groups—
importance of alliances—
organizational advantage of small group—
Practice Tests
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1) Political scientist David Truman argues that interest groups form to counteract
other groups that already exist. This theory is called
a. patron theory.
b. disturbance theory.
c. potential group theory.
d. group formation
2) Groups such as Common Cause are often categorized as a
a. public interest group.
b. single issue group.
c. economic issue group.
d. All of the above.
3) An example of a multi-issue group is the
a. Christian Coalition.
b. NAACP.
c. NOW.
d. All of the above.
4) During the 1960s and 70s, interest groups often formed around issues important to
groups, such as
a. religious groups and economic organizations.
b. minorities, the elderly, the poor, and consumers.
c. elites, activists, and party regulars.
d. economic, foreign policy advocates, and conservatives.
5) After developing close ties to George W. Bush before the 2000 election, a vice
president of an interest group boasted: “We’ll have a president…where we work
out of their office…[and have] unbelievably friendly relations.” This interest
group contributed $20 million for the reelection of President George W. Bush in
2004. Its primary purpose is the protection and advancement of the Second
Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the “right to bear arms.” Which interest
group is this?
a. Christian Coalition
b. U.S. Chamber of Commerce
c. National Rifle Association
d. American Civil Liberties Union
6) Labor unions were formed beginning in the 1900s and membership held steady
through the middle of the century. In 2000, approximately what percent of
workers were unionized?
a. 50
b. 35
c. 25
d. 14
7) Almost all lobbyists and interest groups use as lobbying techniques.
a. testimony at legislative hearings and personal contacts
b. the endorsement of candidates and working on elections
c. filing suit or otherwise engaging in litigation
d. protest and demonstrations
8) In order to be effective, a lobbyist depends on
a. a reputation for winning on behalf of his client, no matter what the cost or
by whatever means possible.
b. a reputation for providing accurate information and playing fair.
c. a limited financial base in the interest group’s PAC in order to fund
campaigns of those legislators who support the lobbyists’ goals
d. All of the above.
9) The Ethics in Government Act requires that executive branch employees must
a. disclose the source and amount of their income.
b. reveal any positions held in business, labor, or nonprofit groups.
c. not represent anyone before their agency for one year after leaving
office.
d. All of the above.
10) Interest groups have a particularly strong link with
a. Congress.
b. the president.
c. regulatory agencies.
d. the courts.
11) Today, grassroots lobbying efforts by interest groups often use
a. faxes, e-mail, and the Internet.
b. carefully targeted television advertising.
c. radio talk shows to stir up listeners to contact their representatives in
Congress.
d. All of the above.
12) A federally registered group that raises funds to donate to the political process is
known as a(n)
a. political action committee.
b. interest group.
c. political party.
d. special interest.
13) Successful interest groups rely in varying degrees, on
a. leaders.
b. patrons.
c. rank and file members.
d. All of the above.
14) People who belong to an interest group often belong to more than one group. This
overlapping membership can have the effect of
a. increasing member activity in both groups.
b. increasing the cohesiveness of the groups.
c. reducing the cohesiveness of the groups.
d. enhance the activity level of members.
15) Something of value, such as a clean environment, that cannot be withheld from a
noninterest group member can reduce the number of paying members an interest
group can attract. This is known as
a. a collective good.
b. the potential membership problem.
c. the overlapping interest problem.
d. cost of membership.
TRUE/FALSE QUESTIONS
1) The American Medical Association is an example of a public interest group.
2) Political Action Committees were first permitted by amendments in 1974 to the
Federal Election Campaign Act.
3) Thomas Jefferson, from his days in the Virginia Assembly, warned of the
development of factions in American politics.
4) As a result of intense lobbying by American business groups, corporations, and
associations, President George W. Bush, early in his first administration, rejected
U.S. participation in the Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change.
5) Few politically active groups use lobbying to make their interests heard by those
in a position to influence or change governmental policies.
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6) Interest groups often lobby the courts by filing amicus briefs in cases that go
before the U.S. Supreme Court.
7) The Ethics in Government Act requires former executive branch employees to
refrain from representing anyone before a federal agency for nine years after
leaving government service on matters that came within the former employees’
sphere or responsibility.
8) Some 35 million people over the age of 50 belong to the AMA, which lobbies
Congress on such issues as Social Security and Medicare.
9) People with low incomes are just as likely to join interest groups as those with
low incomes.
10) Jack Abramoff’s felony conviction and prison sentence led to a promise by
Congress to re-examine the role of lobbying in the legislative process.
ESSAY AND SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1) Define interest groups and discuss their functions.
2) Why do interest groups form? Discuss a number of theories and their rationales
for group formation.
3) Compare and contrast potential vs. actual interest group membership.
4) What is lobbying, and why is it important? Is it “good” or “bad” or neither?
5) How do interest groups lobby the courts?
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6) Discuss the effect of campaign contributions by interest groups on the democratic
process.
7) What makes interest groups successful?
8) Discuss the changes in the nature and outlook of interest groups from the 1950s
and 60s to the 1970s and 80s.
9) Discuss the right-wing backlash to the rise of the interest groups 1960s.
10) Discuss the various reforms attempted in lobbying practices.
ANSWERS TO STUDY EXERCISES
Multiple Choice Answers
1) b
2) a
3) d
4) b
5) c
6) d
7) a
8) b
9) d
10) c
11) d
12) a
13) d
14) c
15) a
True/False Answers
1) F
2) T
3) F
4) T
5) F
6) T
7) F
8) F
9) F
10) T