Prehistory &
the Rise of
Civilization
FC.1 BIOLOGICAL, CULTURAL & TECHNOLOGICAL EVOLUTION IN HISTORY
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
Where nature very slowly adapts us to changing environment
Humans distinguished by 5 major biological features:
Binocular & Upright posture
Hands with
Large well
Speech
color vision
frees hands
opposable thumbs organized brain share ideas
“RUBBER BAND” THEORY
If 1 part of a culture changes
it affects the rest of the culture
CULTURAL EVOLUTION
People adapt behavior to envir.
Much faster than biol. evol.
New tech’s Surpluses
TECHNOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
People adapt envir. to their needs 
progressively the fastest evol.
Wars & conflict
Mobile H & G soc’s Little or no
surplus Little conflict Fairly
egalitarian society
Settled agr. soc’s More surplus
 More wars & soc. stratification
 Lower status for women
Pre-indust. civ’s Much more
wealth Much more war & soc.
stratif. Women lose status
Indus. soc’s w/rapidly accelerating
tech Much more destr. warfare,
but higher status for women
Biol. & cult. evol. can’t keep up with spiraling tech. growth
Much more wealth, but also major problems:
Society & culture can’t Tech. of destruction grows even faster than
change as quickly
tech. of production Total war is obsolete
Environment can’t
support unltd. growth
FC.2 A POSSIBLE SCENARIO FOR HUMAN EVOLUTION
Shrews adapt to 3-D life in the trees  Evolve into prosimians
(e.g., lemurs)  Monkeys, all of them developing:
Binocular vision to deal Better brain to deal Better hands for hanging
w/3-D environment
onto tree branches
w/3-D environment
Hotter & drier
climate Much
of rain forest
dries out
Apes evolve & practice tree swinging  helps develop:
Upright posture  Vision & brain to absorb hands to grasp at
Can see farther
high speed data
higher speeds
Hotter & drier
climate Much
of rain forest
dries out
Some apes move out into savannah (dry grasslands) to find food
Develop big jaws & molars & lose their canines so they
can chew grasses & grains they find in the savannah
Ice Ages
Harsh
conditions
Must adapt
more quickly
Develop the first technology
Fire for warmth, defense vs. animals, Stone tools for hunting and defense
& cooking Safer & more nutritious
against wild animals
Ice Ages
Harsh
conditions
Must adapt
more quickly
Better hunting & gathering
Improved tools
Better Nutrition
Better nourished brain
Speech develops
with better brain
Evolution of
the family
(FC.3)
Better sharing of
knowledge
Evidence of more modern behavior:
Religion (e.g. burials)
Care for sick and injured
Early art (e.g, cave ptgs)
Discovery of
agriculture
(FC.4)
FC.3 A POSSIBLE SCENARIO FOR THE EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY &
GENDER ROLES
Hominids forced into the savannah (FC.2)
Evolution of larger brain & head (FC.2)
Scavenging for meat & gathering
berries, grains, etc.by men & women
“Premature” births of babies with
smaller heads to ease pain of birth
Successful scavenging Taste for meat
 Males actively hunt while females
watch children & gather plants for food
Helpless at birth Dependent on mothers
for longer time Mothers need help of the
fathers to support the children
Specialized roles as men who hunt &
women gather food & watch children
Year-round mating replaces yearly estrus
cycle in some females
Complementary roles of men & women
Much more need for coop. & sharing
Those females attract males all the time
Males share food with them & their children
More permanent pair bonding as men get
attached to other aspects of family life:
Added companionship & Emotional satisfaction
security of family life
coming from children
Stalking & waiting for game require:
Intensely focusing
on one thing
Long periods of
staying quiet
Women must gather while also:
Keeping track of
several children
Looking out for
predators
Discourages verbal socializing
that could scare off game
Coop. & verbal socializing
Strong bonds b/w women
Brains adapted to concentrate intensely on 1
problem & block out other stimuli
More multi-tasking brains suited to keeping
track of several things at once
General, not absolute, tendencies in &
differences b/w men & women
FC.4 THE BIRTH OF AGRICULTURE & ITS EFFECTS
WHY AGR. &
CIV. 1ST
DEVELOP IN
EURASIA
(ESP.NEAR
EAST)
Eurasia‘s E-W axis Plants share same climate, & seasonal variations of sunlight
Domestic crops & intensive agric. can spread rapidly from one center
WHY AGR. &
CIV. 1ST
DEVELOP IN
EURASIA
(ESP.NEAR
EAST)
Agr develops first in Fertile Crescent because:
Hot dry summers Big seeds for fast growth No
woody stems Big nutritious grains & easy harvest
It has many self pollinating cereals Don’t breed
w/other plants Don’t lose valued recessive traits
Cities & civiliz. can develop & spread rapidly from 1 center (FC.6)
Better hunting
& gathering
tech., esp
sickles &
baskets (FC.2)
Permanent villages w/stable grain supplies which allow:
Time to watch seeds grow
Women don’t carry kids so far 
discovery of agric. (c.8000 B.C.E.) Less need to control pop. growth
Young children can eat grains Women wean
children earlier Shorter gaps b/w pregnancies
Rising pop Need more food, but won’t abandon easier H&G lifestyle
 Casual agriculture mixed with hunting & gathering
Population growth
Heavier reliance on agr.
Depletes H&G resources
Need for more food
Eventually settle down to full-time agric. with important results:
Dev. new agr. techniques(2-field
Less coop. & sharing private
system, crop rotation) popul.  prop.Soc. classes & more conflict
Rise of hydraulic civ. in Mesopotamia (FC.6)
Warmer, wetter
climate (c,10,000
BCE) Wild
grains spread in
mid East
FC.5 ANIMAL DOMESTICATION AND ITS EFFECTS
Better hunting & gathering  More settled lifestyle (FC.2)
Abiltiy to keep & domesticate animals that are:
Herbivourous & fast
Live in herds w/strict soc. hierarchy Tame & willing to breed in
growing  Need less food
that humans can take over
captivity
Most animals suitable for domestication were found exclusively in Eurasia & esp. the Fertile Crescent
Sheep & goats (c.8000 B.C.E.)
that are easily tamed 
Meat &
Can digest
Wool
milk for cellulose Make
for
food
hilly land useful clothing
Pigs (c.7000 B.C.E.)
that scavenge :
Reduce Need less Cheap to
waste supervision keep
Cows (c.6500 B.C.E.) - hard to
tame but can:
Digest
Pull plows
Give meat,
cellulose Farm more land milk & hides
Horses (c.3000 B.C.E.) when
tamed & bred up in size 
New
Faster
More
source of comm’s
mobile
energy Bigger emp’s armies
Chronic clashes throughout history b/w nomads
grazing their herds in dry grasslands & settled
farmers in well watered areas (FC.9)
Herd animals’ diseases often infect humans
Eurasian civ’s adapt Advantage vs. cultures not
previously exposed (FC.16)
FC.6 THE RISE OF HYDRAULIC CIVILIZATIONS & THEIR IMPACT
Birth of agriculture in uplands of Mesopotamia (FC.4)
Population growth Migration into hot dry river valley of Tigris & Euphrates
Common culture promoted by easy trade & transport by water
Villages all along the rivers start irrigation
Surplus grain
Expand Irrigation
Population rises
Need more food
Artisans & craftsmen come to
town to build temple or support
it with goods & services
Priest organizes complex
irrigation projects & is paid with
offerings of grain
Priests use surplus grain to build & expand temple
Cities emerge all along the valley which keep expanding
farmland to support their rising popul’s
Large pop’s of civ’s in hot
climates of Mid East & India
gradually adapt to infectious
diseases
Greater concentrations
of wealth & population
Wars b/w cities over
water rights & land
Rising gap b/w rich & poor
Crime need strong govt.
Wars become chronic
Advantage over nomadic pop’s
who haven’t come into contact
w/these diseases (FC.9)
Need a strong war leader
Permanent kings who provide strong govt. &
build history’s first empires (FC.10)
FC.6A FESTIVE DANCING AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN HISTORY
Early hunting & gathering soc’s (FC.2)
H & G people learn to move together Image of 1 big animal to drive off predators 
Practice
moving together Trancelike & spiritual experience of all being together as one
Early civ’s w/ hierarchical
soc. structure (FC.6)
Attempts to control collective dancing by formalizing
it into state relig. monopolized by ruling class
Early civ’s w/ hierarchical
soc. structure (FC.6)
Dionysian rites that seem to
invert soc. order (FC.21)
Grk’s formalize Dionysian rites into seasonal event, seeing
it necessary to give in to irrational side occasionally so
they can preserve sane rationality the rest of the time
Dionysian rites that seem to
invert soc. order (FC.21)
Romans’ conservative &
hierarchical soc. (FC.26)
Romans’ conservative &
hierarchical soc. (FC.26)
Romans try to suppress Dionysian & other
religions that use festive dancing
Romans see Chr. as like Dionysian rites because both:
Rise of
Christianity
(FC.26)
Rise of Med.
Papacy (FC.66)
Worship son of God & mortal woman who dies & is resurrected
Practice festive dancing, though Involve wine (Chr. Communion &
neither has a sexual component
Christ’s 1st miracle)
Rise of
Christianity
(FC.26)
St. Paul tries to control dancing, etc. to make Chr. seem more legit. to Romans
 Efforts to control dancing increase with growth of Church hierarchy
Rise of Med.
Papacy (FC.66)
Med. Church in 1200s bans dancing in Church  Pushed out into streets Carnival  Loses more
spiritual nature & becomes more of a parody of ruling classes who feel increasingly threatened
Rising soc tensions in 1500s (FC.84)
Protestant
Ref. (FC.84)
Capitalist work
ethic (FC.75)
Prot. & Cath Ref’s suppress carnival & nearly extinguish it, esp. in Prot N.
French Rev.
(FC.105)
Mussolini
(FC.133)
Strict Calvinist ideas on sin (FC.85B)
Growing sense of self distinct from society Sense of isolation
 Rising rates of depression starting in 1600s
Napoleonic
wars (FC.106)
Nationalist military parades w/beat to recreate festive feeling while controlling
people as only passive audience
Fascist mass rallies in 1920s & 30s try to create highly controlled festive experience for passive
audience Boring Ltd. temporary success
Hitler & Nazis
(FC.134)
FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E.
Low population density
Low population density
STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE
Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away.
Moderate population density
High pop. density
Moderate population density
Larger tribes, but no surplus for tribute or use for slaves
Losers in wars are killed, though women may be spared.
High pop. density
Larger chiefdoms & states w/surplus wealth Losers in wars are enslaved or taxed
Drought (c.2000 BCE)
EARLY CIV. WARFARE (c.3000-1700 B.C.E.)
Drought (c.2000 BCE)
Cities’ ltd. resources Most Sumerian wars indecisive sieges until
new siege tech’s Can storm cities History’s 1st emp’s:
Akkadian Emp. (c.2350-2250 B.C.E.) 3rd Dyn. of Ur (c.2100-2000 B.C.E.)
Domestic.
of horse
(FC5)
Warfare more widespread & destructive. Turmoil & destr. of many cities in region
Domestic.
of horse
(FC5)
Indo-Eur. peoples armed w/composite bow & horse & chariot disrupt older civ’s:
Mid. Kgd Egypt (FC.11A) Mesopotamia under Babylon (FC.10)
HIGH BRONZE AGE
(1700-1200 B.C.E)
Indus River Civ. (FC.12)
Expense of bronze & horses Autocratic
Civ’s ruled w/small elite chariot armies:
HIGH BRONZE AGE
(1700-1200 B.C.E)
Kassites & Hittites (FC.10) New Kgd Egypt (FC.11B) Mycenaean Greeks (FC.17)
Iron
tech.
(FC.8)
Raiders & mercenaries use light infantry vs. chariots Weaken &/or overthrow civ’s in Near East
EARLY IRON AGE
(c.1000-500 B.C.E)
Bigger Empires (Assyrian Chaldaean
Persians helped by:
EARLY IRON AGE
(c.1000-500 B.C.E)
Big iron-equipped armies Alphabet Better records (FC.7) Cavalry replacing chariots
Warfare becomes more destructive, widespread, & chronic, but also profitable for winners
Iron
tech.
(FC.8)
FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens,
merchants in next city will see difference
merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they
have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens
Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g.,
picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for keeping inventories but little else
STAGES OF
WRITING
Ideographic writing (c.3000 B.C.E.): Pictographs can stand for something
more abstract (e.g., picture of son = “day”, “light”, or “heat”
STAGES OF
WRITING
Rebus writing (c.2100 B.C.E.): Using phonetic values suggested by pictographs to build new
unrelated words (e.g., picture of sun = “son”)  Useful but still needed ~700 symbols (1 for each
syllable) Narrow, highly specialized class of scribes rest of society heavily depends on
Phonetic alphabet (c.1000 B.C.E.): one symbol for each sound we make
 Much simpler
Many more literate people Better record keeping Much
 Lowers scribes’ status bigger states & trade routes
Expands uses of writing
to literature & history
FC.8 THE RISE OF METALLURGY & ITS IMPACT
Better hunting & gathering
More settled lifestyle(FC.2)
Invent pottery Kiln for hotter
fires & copper/oxide glaze
Trinket tech. using bits of copper
found while looking for flint
Copper beads smelt out
See copper’s usefulness
Copper too soft to be very useful
Find natural & harder, but poisonous alloy of copper & arsenic
Search for & find safer alloy of copper & tin
Bronze Age (c.3000-1000 B.C.E.)
Bronze too expensive
for most people
Highly stratified soc’s in the
Near East
Civilization
spreads along
tin routes
Trade routes expand to
find tin
Tin supply cut by nomadic
upheavals (c.1200 B.C.E.)
Need replacement for bronze
Iron Age starts (c.1000 B.C.E.)
More effective forest
cutting, mining & plowing
Iron much more plentiful
than bronze ever was
New forms of wealth, but also
deforestation, soil erosion, and
more wars (FC.6B)
More democratic soc’s, such
as Greece, since the masses
are armed w/iron (FC.19)
FC.9 FARMERS, NOMADS, AND THE SPREAD OF CIVILIZATION
Well watered
farmlands
Birth of agric.
(FC.4)
Domestic. of
animals (FC.5)
Nomadic
herders
Semi-arid
grasslands
Settled
farmers
Sometimes peaceful co-existence, but often
clashes with each side having its own advantages:
Nomads:
Civilization:
• Meat diet Bigger & stronger • Agr. Bigger popul. & army
• More mobile Hard to catch • More org. & disciplined army
• Size & speed Psych edge • Usually better equip. & tech.
Peaceful trade & service in
civilized armies Nomads
learn their military
techniques
Civ’s have adapted to infectious
diseases while nomads haven’t (FC.6)
Civ. usually wins until weakened by natural or
human factors (e.g., poor leadership)
Nomadic hit-andrun raids
Civ. revives & expands Clashes
w/new nomadic tribes
Peaceful trade & service in
civilized armies Nomads
learn about & envy civ.
wealth
Further weakened
civilization
Civ. falls & continues to decline b/c
nomads can’t or won’t maintain it
Civilization starts to revive for several reasons:
Nomads marry Nomads learn to
Nomads get
civ.. women who appreciate & how
attached to
raise the children to maintain civ. civilized comforts
Mesopotamian civilization spreads across Middle East & to Greece (FC.10)
Grk civ. spreads to Rome & Macedon (FC.19)
Indian civ.
spreads across
S & SE Asia
(FC.33)
Spread of Roman civiliz. to W. Europe (FC.33)
Rome falls to. Ger. tribes who gradually revive civiliz.(FC.39)
Chinese civ.
spreads across
E & SE Asia
(FC.33)
The Ancient
Near East
FC.10 THE SWEEP OF MESOPOTAMIA’S HISTORY (c.3000-539 B.C.E).
Few resources
Resourceful people
Hot dry river valley Irrig. Organiz. Civiliz. (FC.6)
Flat terrain Open
to invasions
Sumerian city-states emerge as history’s 1st civilization (c.3000 B.C.E.):
Cycle of conflicts b/w
nomads & civ’s (FC.9)
Wars b/w cities over land &
water rights (FC.6)
Akkad (2350-2250 B.C.E.) which
rules through:
Tear down Hostages Gov’rs &
rebel walls More obedent garrisons
3rd Dynasty of Ur (c.21002000B.C.E.) ruling through:
1st known Temples & Messenger
law code irrig. Jobs system
Babylon (c.1750-1600) rules
through:
Promote 1 Temples & Promote 1
language irrig. Jobs law code
Assyria (c.911-612) conquers
empire using:
Mounted
cavalry
Siege
weapons
Iron
weapons
Chaldean Emp. (612-539) rules Fertile Crescent but suffers econ. problems:
S. ports silt up Cut trade Rival Medes cut trade to NE Relig. dispute disrupts emp.
Raise taxes Peasants over-work
& over-irrigate soil to pay taxes
Rising water table  Salt ruins
soil Tax revenues fall
Semi-nomadic Persians take Babylon Establish & rule history’s largest empire to that time (FC.15)
FC.11 THE CYCLES OF THE NILE & EGYPTIAN HISTORY
Desert & sea surround Egypt
Hot dry river valley of the Nile
Peaceful history
Need to irrigate
Can build a strong unified kingdom
Need org. & govt. Hydraulic civiliz.
Agriculture &
prosperity rise
Prov. gov’s & priests
under tighter control
Pharaoh’s status &
tax revenues rise
Pharaoh’s power
increases
Until times of regular floods:
c.3000-2250 B.C.E.
c.1950-1840 B.C.E.
c.1770-1170 B.C.E.
Prosperous strong periods:
Old Kingdom (c.2850-2150 B.C.E.)
Middle Kingdom (2052-1778 B.C.E.)
New Kingdom (1570-1085 B.C.E.)
Periods of anarchy:
1st Intermed. (c.2190-2052 B.C.E.)
2nd Intermed.(c.1778-1570 B.C.E.)
3rd Intermed.(c.1085-525 B.C.E.)
Until times of irregular floods:
Low floods (c.2250-1950 B.C.E.)
High floods (1840-1770 B.C.E.)
Low floods (1170-1100 B.C.E.)
Agriculture & econ.
decline
Prov. gov’s & priests
get out of control
Pharaoh’s status &
tax rev’s decline
Pharaoh’s power
declines
Egypt comes under Persian
rule in 525 B.C. (FC.15)
FC.11A EGYPT’S OLD AND MIDDLE KINGDOMS (c.3000-1778 B.C.E.)
Water from Nile
Rise of hydraulic civilization in Egypt (FC.11)
Hot & dry climate
Clashes between city-states (nomes) over land
 Egypt coalesces into two kingdoms: Upper (S) & Lower(N) Egypt
 Final unification of Egypt under Menes (c.3000 B.C.E.)
Old Kingdom (2850-2150 B.C.E.) characterized by:
Strongly centralized govt. to Pharaoh seen as a god-king
run irrigation & protect peace
Massive pyramid projects
Priests & nobles separated
from pharaoh’s influence by
long stretches of Nile
Low floods (c.22501950 B.C.E.)
Huge expense of pyramids,
esp. when others besides
pharaoh can build them too
Cycle of bad floods & decline (FC. 11)
First Intermediate period (c.2190-2052 B.C.E.), a period of chaos, econ. decline, civil wars
between nomes & nomadic raids until regular floods return (c.1950-1840 B.C.E.)
Cycle of good floods & prosperity (FC. 11)
Middle Kingdom (2052-1778 B.C.E.) characterized by:
Building projects such as burial Cultural golden age, Expansion south into Nubia for
labyrinth w/3500 chambers
esp. in literature
gold & NE into Palestine & Syria
Prosperity continues until high floods hit (1840-1770 B.C.E.)
Turmoil of 2nd Intermediate period (c.1778-1570 B.C.E.) (FC.11B)
FC.11B EGYPT’S NEW KINGDOM & FINAL DECLINE (1778-525 B.C.E.)
Turmoil of 2nd Intermediate period (c.1778-1570 B.C.E.) (FC.11A)
Regular floods (c.17701170 B.C.E.) (FC.11)
Regular floods (c.17701170 B.C.E.) (FC.11)
Lower Egypt conquered by nomadic Hyksos armed
with horse-drawn chariots & composite bows
While Hyksos adopt Egyptian culture & get soft, Egyptians
adopt composite bows & chariots from Hyksos (FC.9)
Hyksos driven out of Egypt (c.1570 B.C.E.)
New Kingdom (1570-1085 B.C.E.) characterized by foreign
expansion to protect Egypt from future invasions:
Nubia in the south for its gold Palestine & Syria ruled indirectly
through vassal kings
Ruled with fortresses & garrisons
Growing power of
priests of Amon who
own 30% of Egypt
Influx of foreign
influences, including
religious
Pharaoh Akhenaton (1370-53 B.C.E.) unsuccessfully tries to break power
of priests of Amon by shifting religious focus to the sun god, Aton
Religious & political turmoil Weakens hold on Egypt’s empire vs. Hittites in N.  Egypt’s
power briefly restored by Seti I (1303-1290) & Ramses II (1290-23) after years of warfare
Low floods (c.11701100 B.C.E.) (FC.11)
Econ. strain from wars  “Sea peoples” take Syria &
Palestine and almost conquer Egypt  More econ. strain
Egypt beset by mounting problems:
Egypt’s enemies, esp.
Assyria, armed with iron
Strain of building
expensive tombs
Priests of Amon get more
powerful & independent
Final decline of Egypt as it comes under rule of Libyans, Nubians,
Assyrians, and finally Persian Empire (525 B.C.E.)
Low floods (c.11701100 B.C.E.) (FC.11)
FC12 THE INDUS RIVER CIVILIZATION & PATTERN OF INDIAN HISTORY
Pattern of rise of hydraulic civilizations (FC.6)
Indus R. Civ. w/highly org. centers at Mohenjo Daro & Harappa characterized by:
Trade with & cultural Standard weights & Sewers to drain Urban planning in Not clear if there was 1
influence from Mesopot. measures for trade water & wastes rectangular grids cent. gov. or indep. cities
Several possible reasons for decline:
Deforestation Drier
Indus River
Too much irrig. Monsoons shifted 
& hotter climate
changed course  Salinized soil Left Indus Civ. arid
Warlike Aryans from NW w/horse & chariot take over (c.1500 B.C.E.)
Hot humid climate Tropical diseases
India a huge subcontinent cut into
distinct regions
Slows
conquests by &
absorption of
new people
India very difficult
to conquer
Position on
Arabian Sea &
Indian Ocean
attracts new
people & ideas
PATTERN OF
INDIAN HISTORY
India cut off by
huge mts., but
w/some passes
Indian gems,
spices and
cotton attract
new people &
ideas
Extremely complex & varied
culture that at once absorbs new
peoples yet keeps them distinct
Aryans (FC.50)
Greeks (FC.51)
Muslims (FC.52)
British (FC.123)
Less faith in
this life
More concern
w/religion
PATTERN OF
INDIAN HISTORY
FC.13 THE PHOENICIANS AND THE ART OF SEAFARING
Few resources except timber &
snails (for purple dye
Phoenicia broken up by
rocky hilly coastline
Phoenicia caught b/w Egypt &
Mesopotamian empires
Phoenicians are resourceful
traders & craftsmen
Independent city-states
unable to resist big empires
Flourishing trade but also
subject to invasions
Phoenicians take to the sea for both trade & colonies
Phoenicians become history’s first great ship-builders, sailors & explorers
Phoenicians draw upon two
older ship-building traditions:
Copy & sell
other
civilizations’
artifacts 
Hard to tell
them from the
originals
Minoan ship design using
keel for ship’s backbone
Egyptian ships use ribs &
thwarts to strengthen hull
Phoenicians combine Minoan & Egyptian designs &
techniques to refine ship-building & navigation
Square sail turned by Hull stabilized by keel, ribs, Sleek warships with
ropes (braces) at each thwarts, & deck & sealed w/ several levels of oars
end of yard arm for
tar (vs leaking) & lead
& a ram to sink enemy
tacking into wind
sheaths (vs. sea worms)
ships
Explore new regions & found colonies:
Explore Medit., N to Britain Found colonies across Medit.
(for tin), & sail around Africa Sea, esp. Carthage in N. Afr.
Centuries long struggle vs. Greek colonists
over Sicily as key to control of W. Medit.
Both sides eventually overtaken by Rome which destroys
Carthage in 146 B.C.E. after three long bitter wars (FC.29)
Refine & spread
phonetic
alphabet (w/o
vowels)
Vastly expands
literacy
FC.14 THE ISRAELITES AND THE BIRTH OF MONOTHEISM
Hebrews live near Mesopotamia as seen in shared stories (e.g., Great Flood) until one group under Abraham
(c.1800 B.C.E.) migrate to Canaan (Palestine) Abraham’s personal covenant to worship only his god
Abraham’s people gain
greater understanding
and concept of God
through various stages
of their history
Hebrews migrate to Egypt (c.1600 B.C.E.)  They’re
enslaved when the Hyksos are driven out (c.1570 B.C.E.)
Hebrews’ Exodus (escape) (c.1200 B.C.E.)
Receive 10 Commandments
Abraham’s people gain
greater understanding
and concept of God
through various stages
of their history
Moral responsibility
Idea of
Basis for much of
for our actions
Monotheism
Western law
Hebrews (AKA Israelites) conquer & divide
Palestine b/w 12 tribes 2 problems:
Israelites absorb civ., but
are drawn to pagan gods
Philistines, armed w/iron,
beat isolated tribes
Unify Isr’s under monarchy of Saul Peaks
under David (c.1000-961) & Solomon (961-922)
Permanent capital at Jerusalem
Profess. army & bureaucracy
Heavy taxes & forced labor  People mad Israel
splits into Kgd. of Israel in N. & Kgd. of Judah in S.
Assyrians conquer Isr. (722
B.C.E.) “10 Lost Tribes” of Isr.
Biblical prophets warn Jews to
repent or face God’s wrath
Babylon conquers Judah (586
B.C.E.), but Jews keep identity
Belief that Jews’ god is a universal god who unleashes
Jews’ enemies when they stray from God’s law
Basis for Christianity (FC.37)
Jews, sustained by their faith, keep their identity
through 1900 years of persecution & exile
Basis for Islam (FC.46)
FC.15 THE PERSIAN EMPIRE (c.550-330 B.C.E.)
Closely related Indo-European speaking Persians & Aryans split
(c.2000 B.C.E.), the Persians going west and the Aryans SE into India
Persian king, Cyrus the Great, frees Persians from Medes, takes Babylon
(539 B.C.E) and establishes history’s greatest empire up to that time (FC.10)
Cambyses, Cyrus’ successor, further extends Persian Empire by conquering Egypt in 525 B.C.E. (F.C.11B)
Problem of how to rule such a huge empire
Darius I“The Great” (522-486 B.C.E.) helps establish stable &
peaceful empire through tolerant rule & several other measures:
Ensures news and
Local garrisons, officials, &
Creates 20 large & powerful
communications by an
royal spies (“King’s Ears”)
provinces (satrapies) whose
empire-wide system of governors could resist invasions, answer directly to king to
roads & relay riders
help prevent revolts
but also rebel vs. king
Still requires strong ruler to keep peace & order
Weak kings succeed Xerxes I after 464 B.C.E.
Civil wars, revolts (esp.
in Egypt), & powerful
independent satraps
Kings raise taxes while
hoarding gold & silver
Less $ in circulation
Hurts kings & economy
Persia falls to Macedonian king, Alexander the Great in 330 B.C.E. (FC.25)
Persians revive under Sassanid Dynasty (c.220-650 C.E.) which preserves
Mesopotamian culture and passes it on through Arab Muslims (F.C.46)
FC.16 THE IMPACT OF DISEASE ON EARLY CIVILIZATIONS
FLOWCHART IN DEVELOPMENT
The Greeks
FC.17 BRONZE AGE GREECE: THE MINOANS & MYCENAEANS
Influence of
Mesopotamia via
Syria & Cycladic
Islands (FC.10)
Rise of Minoan Civ. on Crete (c.1900 BCE) with:
Strong trade & navy  No fortif’s needed since
Spread infl. over Aegean Crete was so isolated
Rich peaceful soc. characterized by:
Higher status for
Elaborately Sophis. archit., palace
women in absence of decorated complex @ Knossos),
warrior class
pottery
& drainage system
Minoans prosper until volcanic eruption on
Thera north of Crete (c.1500 B.C.E.)
Shock waves destr. Volcanic ash kills Tidal wave wrecks
buildings on Crete
crops on Crete Minoan navy & trade
Conquest of Minoans by Mycenaeans characterized by:
Indep. palace-states,
but centralized like
Egypt & Mesop.
Very wealthy society Warlike soc. as seen
from trade across the
in their fortif’s,
Near East
armor, & pottery art
Soc. flourished until upheavals, which the Myc’s may have
joined (e.g., Trojan War), disrupted Mycenaean trade
Grain shortages in Greece
Hurts trade even more
Wars b/w palace states
Weakens the Mycenaeans
Myc’s fall  Greek Dark Age (FC.18)
Egyptian infl. in
archit. (columns)
& art (profiles)
(FC.11)
FC.18 DARK AGE GREECE & THE RISE OF THE POLIS (c.1100-750 B.C.E.)
Fall of Mycenaean Civ. (FC.17)
Dark Age (c.1100-750 BCE) characterized by:
Poverty as seen in the
Movement of
Illiteracy as seen by
crude architecture
peoples Chaos lack of written records
Greece is
broken up by
mountains
Dorians, who overthrew
Mycenaeans & often treated
their subjects like slaves
Greece by the
sea with few
resources
Greece is
broken up by
mountains
Various groups & dialects of Greeks, the two most
important being:
Ionians who either resisted
Dorians or fled to islands &
Asia Minor ( Ionia)
Numerous defensive sites centered around defensible hills
(acropolises) More settled conditions by 800 B.C.E.
Revival of trade & influence from East:
• Phoen. alphabet Grks add vowels
• Egyptian architecture (columns) & art
Greece is hilly
& dry with
poor soil
Mixed agr. of grains, vines, & orchards
developed on marginal lands by indep.
farmers who band together vs. nobles
Defensive centers evolve into small indep. citystates (poleis)  both good & bad points:
Inspired Greeks to work
hard for their polis
Chronic warfare b/w
poleis their downfall
Basis for Greek
Civiliz. (FC.23)
Rise of Greek
Democ. (FC.19)
Despite their differences, there were also unifying factors:
Leagues which bound
Common language which Grks saw
groups of cities by political, as separating them from non-Greek
religious, & kinship ties
speaking babblers (“barbarians”)
Common religion & sacred
games (e.g., Olympics) 
Common ties for all Greeks
FC.19 THE RISE OF GREEK DEMOCRACY (c.1100-750 B.C.E.)
Poor soil
Rise of Greek city-states (poleis) (FC.18)
Drought
Famine & overcrowding  Peasants borrow from nobles  Peasants lose farms when
they can’t repay the loans Unstable poleis with few rich & many poor  Unrest
Grks found colonies (c.750-550 B.C.E.) around Black Sea, N. Aegean, S. Italy & Sicily
Grk civ.
spreads to
Rome (FC.26)
Rise of indep.
farmers
practicing
mixed agric.
(FC.18)
Coinage, a portable form of wealth
More trade & shift from land to $ econ.
More resources & less pop.
pressure Mid. class who
can buy arms & armor
Heavily armored Grk.
phalanxes Can found &
defend more colonies
Grk civ. spreads
to Macedon
(FC.24)
More settled
conditions 
Revival of
crafts & trade
(FC.18)
Phalanx warfare (c.650 B.C.E.) characterized by:
Reliance on rising MC of small indep.
Short head-on clashes to protect
farmers who can afford shield & armor farmers’ land & get them back to work
CONCEPT OF WARFARE AS DECISIVE HEAD-ON CLASHES
SPREADS TO ROME W. CIV’S CONCEPT OF WAR TODAY
Phalanx spreads as each polis needs it to survive vs other poleis
In many commercial poleis, MC hoplites
help tyrants seize power & provide jobs,
written laws & land to stay popular
Pop. until they can’t or won’t give more
 Become oppressive Overthrown
Shame culture & social
nature of Grk. soc.
Check on extreme
behavior
In more agricultural poleis, middle class
of hoplite-farmers are vital to phalanx 
They are vital to the polis
Status of farmer-hoplites in phalanx
Supports their control of polis
Limited dem’s characterized by:
Equality & Dom. by merchants, Ltd warfare so
involvement craftsmen, & small farmer-hoplites
landholders
in politics
can tend farms
FC.20 THE RISE OF SPARTA TO 500 B.C.E.
Sparta originally like other Greek city-states,
even being a leader in poetry & dance
Famine & overcrowding (FC.19)
Famine & overcrowding (FC.19)
Rather than colonizing like other Greeks, Sparta
conquers neighboring Messenia in 2 long & bitter wars
Sparta, outnumbered 10:1 by its subject
Messenians, turns them into serfs (Helots)
Sparta forced to become a military state
in constant readiness vs. helot revolts
Sickly babies
unlikely to
grow into
Govt. a
strong soldiers
conserv.
or mothers are
oligarchy of
exposed to die
30 elders &
5 ephors
Boy’s & men’s lives
ruled by the military:
Age 7-18: Boys Age 18-20:
taken to live in
Serve in
barracks &
Krypteia
given tough & (secr. police)
brutal training to spy on &
which gets
terrorize
worse at age 12
Helots
Age 20-50: Fulltime soldiers
Women run
farms & helots
 Unusually
high status for
women
Girls get tough
training @
home 
healthy moms
Fear of
for future
Helot revolt
Spartans
 Conserv.
for. policy
Spartans had the best army in
Greece but little originality,
freedom or self discipline
Despite their authoritarian society, the Spartans would play an essential
role in defending Greek liberties in the Persian Wars (FC.23A)
FC.21 THE RISE OF ATHENS TO 500 B.C.E.
Dorian failure to conquer Attica
Few internal conflicts
Early unif. & Athen. citizenship
for men throughout Attica
Tensions in Poleis from rising mid.
class & overpopulation (FC.19)
More internal
peace in Athens
Tensions in Poleis from rising mid.
class & overpopulation (FC.19)
Rising tensions in Athens even after Draco’s law
code (621 B.C.E.) tries to end many abuses by
nobles Solon made archon (594 B.CE..) to make
reforms & avert revolution
POLITICAL
DEVELOPMENTS
ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENTS
Solon’s polit. reforms:
Solon’s econ. reforms:
Attracts
artisans to
Athens
All citizens Wealth, not birth, Pop. assem.
got a bit
could serve the criteria for
more power
on juries
office
Abolishes
Bans grain
exports Grow debts to help
poor
olives for oil
Sell olive oil, wine (later), pottery, &
other crafts Money to buy grain
Factional fighting goes on Peisistratus
becomes tyrant (545-527 B.C.E.)
Money left over after buying grain
Provides land & jobs for the poor
Invest $ in more
vineyards, olive
orchards & pottery
Anger grows as
tyrants’ rule
becomes stricter
More profits as
they sell olive oil,
pottery & crafts
Athens takes Sigeum in the Hellespont to
guard grain coming from the Black Sea
War with Persia whose expansion
threatens Athens’ grain supply
Athenians
find major
silver
deposit at
Laurium
More repression
as pop’s anger
grows
Overthrow Peisistratus’ son & est. ltd.
democr. favoring mid. class (508 B.C.E.)
Athenians have more at stake
when Persian threat appears
Athens builds navy & leads Greeks to victory
vs. Persia  Athen. Emp. & cultural golden
age (FC.23)
FC.22 THE BIRTH OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY & SCIENCE.
Influence of Babylonian
math & science (FC.10)
Growing prosperity & freedom of expression
in Grk. poleis by 600 B.C.E. (FC.19)
Influence of Egyptian
math & science (FC.11)
Greeks the 1st people to give non-myth. explanations of the universe
Milesian philosophers debate what is the primary element at the root of change:
Anaximenes: Air or vapor
Thales: Water since it exists Anaximander: a vague element
since rain is pressed from air
in all 3 states of matter
he calls the “boundless
Debate on the nature of change & if we can trust our senses
Parmenides: Matter can’t come from nothing
Heracleitus: The universe consists of opposites
 Matter is eternal & unchangeable
 Opposites (e.g., day & night) interact
 Change is an illusion We can’t trust our senses  Change is constant We can trust our senses
Theories of unchangeable elements which combine w/each other  change:
Empedocles: 4 elements (earth, water, air,
& fire)  Combine in fixed ratios
Democritus: Unlimited variety of tiny
indivisible atoms which combine
Sophists in Athens (400s) shift focus from nat’l world to morals
& ethics, but claim there is no absolute right or wrong
Socrates in Athens (400s) says true insight comes from within
 We can figure out absolute right from wrong
Debate on the which is more trustworthy, our senses or reason
Plato (428-347): We have innate power to reason
Aristotle (384-322 ): We have innate power to reason
 Our imperfect world flows from & is based on
 But no innate ideas exist in our minds which don’t
higher world of unchanging & eternal ideas
first exist in the sensory world

 We need abstract thinking, esp. math, to find truth
We must rely on our senses to find the truth
Essential part of the scientific method that would emerge in W. Eur. in 1600s (FC.97)
FC.23A. THE PERSIAN WARS (c.500-478 B.C.E.)
Athens relies on grain from Black Sea (FC.21)
Persian expansion into Black Sea area (FC.15)
Ionian Greeks rebel vs. Persia & ask Athens’ help
Athens helps Ionians who burn Persian city Sardis
Persians crush Ionians at naval battle of Lade & destroy Miletus (494 B.C.E.)
 Persian king, Darius I, also wants revenge vs. Athenians
1st Persian expedition vs. Greece destroyed in a storm
Darius I dies
(486 B.C.E.)
2nd Persian expedition Athenians use shock of the hoplite phalanx charge
to defeat much larger, but lightly armed, Persian army at Marathon (490 B.C.E)
Egypt rebels
vs. Persia
3rd Persian exped. takes 10 yrs. for new Persian king, Xerxes to prepare
Time for Greeks to prepare:
Many, but not all Greeks, band Athens uses silver from mines
together in an alliance
of Laurium to build navy
Storm in N.
Aegean
wrecks 400
Pers. ships
Strategy of holding narrow pass at Thermopylae & nearby
straits of Artemesium to neutralize Persian numbers
Storm off
Euboea
wrecks 200
Pers. ships
7000 Greeks led by 300 Spartans hold Thermopylae until pass is betrayed
 Greek fleet forced to abandon Artemesium despite heavy Persian losses
All Greece except Peloponnesus abandoned to Persia Persians burn Athens in revenge for Sardis
Greeks defeat Persian fleet in narrows of Salamis
 Xerxes leaves his army in Greece (480 B.C.E.)
Greeks crush Persian army at Plataea (479)
 Persians cleared out of Greece
Greeks destroy Persian navy at Mycale (479)
 Persians cleared out of Ionia
Set stage for Athenian Empire & golden age of Classical Greek civilization (FC.23)
FC.23 THE DELIAN LEAGUE & ATHENIAN EMPIRE (c.500-431 B.C.E.)
Greeks, esp. Athens, defeat Persian invasions (FC.23A)
Greeks form Delian League, led by Athens w/ its large navy to guard Greeks from future
Persian invasions, free Ionian Grks, & drives Persians from the Aegean Sea
EVOLUTION OF DELIAN LEAGUE INTO ATHENIAN EMPIRE
Most members, being poor,
pay Athens $ to maintain navy
Athens uses navy to keep
members from leaving league
The empire needs the navy
Poor need empire
to pay for navy
EVOLUTION
OF IMPERIAL
DEMOCRACY
Navy uses poor
Ath’s as rowers
More influence for poor
Broader based Ath. democ.
Athens also controls its subjects through:
Settling Athen.colonies Moving the League Making subjects use Subjects must use only
(cleruchies) on subject treasury to Athens Athen. courts Jobs Athenian coins Prolands Guard vs. rev. for “safe keeping”
Athen. propaganda
for Athen. jurors
Athens tries to expand across Greece & vs. Persia in Aegean
 Athens is defeated Peace w/Persia (448) & Sparta (445)
Peace w/Persia & Sparta after failure of more Ath. expansion
 Democracy & culture flourish under Pericles’ leadership
Red figure pottery Classical sculpt. Tragic & comic drama in form of Grk architecture Freed. of inquiry
art more available to  More realistic myth Guidance & perspective reaches height new ideas, but also
common people
& natural poses
on contemporary problems
with Parthenon questions old values
Peace & prosperity continue until war breaks
out w/Sparta (FC.24A)
Basis for West. Civ. carried on by Rome & reemerging in Renaissance (FC.76)
FC.24A. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR (431-404 B.C.E.)
Sparta dominates Pelop. League (FC.20)
Athens dominates Delian League (FC.23)
Any war b/w members of each league Drags in all Greeks
When Athens backs Corcyra vs. Corinth Sparta backs Corinth War involving whole Greek world
Sparta, w/strong army, invades
Attica, devastating its agr. &
hoping to beat Ath’s in land battle
ARCHIDAMIAN WAR
(431-421 BCE)
Ath’s, w/strong navy, raid
Peloponnesus & avoid Sp. army
by crowding inside Long Walls
Ath. strategy works until epidemic kills ~1/3 Ath’s, incl. Pericles
Athenians bitter over losses War becomes increasingly vicious:
Ath’s brutally suppress rev’s by Mytilene & Skione Spartans totally destroy Plataea after 2-year siege
Peace of Nicias (421 BCE) after 10 yrs of costly but inconclusive warfare
Ambitious politician, Alcibiades, convinces Ath’s to invade Sicily
Alcibiades runs to Sparta when enemies charge him with sacrilege
Ath. army has initial success
until it besieges Syracuse
SICILIAN PHASE
(415-413 BCE)
Alcibiades convinces Sp’s
to help Syracuse vs. Athens
Entire Athenian expedition gets trapped & destroyed at Syracuse
AEGEAN
PHASE
(413-404)
Athenians face seemingly overwhelming problems:
Ath. navy & $ are gone Alcibiades gets Persia to give Sp. $ for Sp’s occupy fortress in
Much of its emp. revolts a fleet in return for promise of Ionia Attica  Ath’s can’t farm
AEGEAN
PHASE
(413-404)
Ath’s rebuild navy & bring Alcibiades back as gen’l Beat Sp’s, restore emp. & even refuse offer of peace
Sp’s beat Ath’s despite Alcib’s orders not to fight while he is away raising funds Alcib., fearing
Athen. mob, flees to Persia  Sp. gen’l, Lysander destroys last Athen. fleet at Aegospotami
Athens falls to Sparta (404 BCE), but fighting continues among Greeks Decline & fall of the Polis(FC.24)
FC.24 THE DECLINE & FALL OF THE GREEK POLIS (431-338 B.C.E.)
Spartan system full-time
professional army (FC.20)
Ath. Emp. Full-time navy
& mercenaries (FC.23)
Grk’s divided b/w
Ath. & Spartan
leagues (FC.23)
War b/w members of
opposing leagues
Most Grks dragged in
Other poleis need merc’s to
compete Need $ Raise
taxes on hoplite farmers
Greeks gang up vs.
biggest power
Ruins many hoplite
farmers Become merc’s
 Fewer hoplites for polis
New polis emerges
as big power
Grk’s divided b/w
Ath. & Spartan
leagues (FC.23)
War b/w members of
opposing leagues
Most Grks dragged in
Sparta destroys Ath.
Emp.. in Pelopon. War
(431-404)
Thebes leads other Greeks
vs. Sparta
Athens & Sparta join
forces to stop Theban
dominance
Greek. colonies
Grk civ. spreads to
Macedon (FC.19)
Rise of Philip II (359-336 B.C.E.) seizes Amphipolis
gold mines of Amphipolis to build up his power with:
Greek. colonies
Grk civ. spreads to
Macedon (FC.19)
Roads to unify Prof. army using latest
Bribes to Grk.
Macedon
milit. techniques & tactics
politicians
Philip advances into Greece using combin. of
diplomacy & war Dilemma esp. for Athens:
If Athens fights Philip 
If Athens doesn’t fight
Its econ. collapseDefeat Philip will conquer Greece
Philip conquers Greece, ending age of the polis & paving the way for his son, Alexander the Great (FC.25)
FC.25 ALEXANDER THE GREAT & THE HELLENISTIC AGE (336-31 B.C.E.)
Philip II’s excellent army (FC.24)
Persia’s decline in 300s (FC.15)
Philip II’s son, Alexander III (336-323) conquers
entire Persian Empire, but leaves no capable heir
Power struggle One dominant general
Other generals ally to bring him down
By 275, three major kingdoms emerge from Alexander’s empire
Antigonid Macedon which
also tried to control Greece
Seleucid Asia Rich & big
 Hardest area to control
Ptolemaic Egypt centralized
govt like under the pharaohs
Constant wars vs Aetolian &
Achaean Leagues of Grk. cities
& occasionally vs Ptolemies &
Seleucids
Found many colonies of Grk’s
& Maced’s esp. in W. Asia to
keep control, but have little
cult. impact outside the cities
Most isolated of the kgd’s
Most peaceful & economically
stable, serving as trade link b/w
Asia & Mediterranean
Weakened Antigonids They
never got firm control of Greece
Constant wars & revolts
Gradually shrinking borders
Egypt’s stability & wealth The
longest lived of the 3 kgd’s
Hellenistic Civ. (i.e., Grk civ. after Alexander) which is characterized by:
Much larger scale kgd’s, cities, Contact with & influence from older Greek civ. is dominant in cities,
trade & royal patronage of arts cultures, esp. Egypt & Mesopotamia but barely found in countryside
Hellenistic Civ. flourished in several areas:
Medicine:
Philosophy:
Math & mechanical science:
• Use of pulse for diagnosis
• Stoicism which stressed duty • Disc. of hydraulics, valves, pumps,
• Saw heart as pump w/valves
& bearing up under hardship
syringes & steam power
• Surgery on hernias, hemorrhoids,
• Epicureanism: Life’s goal
• Eratosthenes’ accurate calculation
bladder stones, etc. & dissections should be to avoid pain through
of earth’s circumference
showing diff. b/w arteries & nerves
moderate lifestyle
• Archimedes’ mechanical principles
Rome absorbs Grk. civ. & passes it on to West. Civ. during Pax Romana (FC.33)
Rome
FC26 THE GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY & ITS IMPACT ON THE RISE OF ROME
Few resources
but more than
Greece has
Most of Italy’s
good harbors
are in S. & W.
Better farmland
than Greece has
Most Greek colonies in S.
Italy (a.k.a. Magna Graecia)
Hills & mts., but
fewer than
Greece has
Heavy Greek influence
on Rome (FC.19)
Hills & mts., but
fewer than
Greece has
More farmers & fewer
traders in Italy
Alps help
protect Italy
from
invasions
Location in
middle of
Mediterranean
Italy divided
by mts., but
less than
Greece
Persevering & group
oriented
Rome able to unite Italy under
its rule (FC.28)
Away from
interference
by other civ’s
in East
Location in
middle of
Mediterranean
Away from
interference
by other civ’s
in East
Rome able to conquer the
Mediterranean (FC.29)
FC.27 ROME’S EARLY ROOTS: THE ETRUSCANS (c.650-400B.C.E.)
Influence
from Grks
in S. Italy
(FC.19)
Etruscans possibly from Asia Minor as seen in :
Use of the arch Their practice of Augury
Style of dress
Influence
from Grks
in S. Italy
(FC.19)
Etruscans conquer Rome
(c.650B.C.E.) & make it a city:
Trade, metallurgy & better Swamp & field drainage &
agriculture
underground. sewers
How to build roads & Alphabet adopted Urban planning on a
bridges
from the Greeks
rectangular grid
Rome the most important
city in Central Italy
Rome wins its freedom (c.500 B.C.E.), but
faces enemies on three sides:
Etruscans still a
Latin tribes to the Hill tribes attack
threat in the N. South rebel vs. Rome attack from East
Etruscans
decline after
Grks beat them
Rome stays free
from Etruscans
Romans beat Latins & form the Latin league,
treating them more as allies than subjects
Latins are more loyal
& reliable allies
Rome able to expand vs. its enemies (FC.28)
Rome allies with
one tribe vs.
others
Rome defeats the
hill tribes
FC.28 ROME’S CONQUEST OF ITALY (c.500-265 B.C.E.)
Rome establishes its indep. from Etruscans & neighboring hill tribes (FC.27)
Rome conquers Etruscan Veii w/o any help from Latins Rome dominates central Italy
Gauls sack Rome (387 BCE), but then return to N. Italy  Temporary
setback for Rome, but Romans have deep fear of N. barbarians
Rome recovers from Gallic disaster & resumes expansion (FC.28A)
Lands on which to
settle Roman poor
Rome founds
colonies to
control new
conquests
PATTERN OF
ROMAN
EXPANSION
Able to conquer
more lands
They can buy
arms & armor
Rome builds
roads to move
armies more
quickly
More soldiers for
Rome’s army
Rome crushes revolt by its Latin allies (343-340
BCE) & rules each Latin state separately
Rome conquers Samnites & Campania (304)
by adopting Samnites’ more flexible tactics
Rome beats Pyrrhus of Epirus’ Hellenistic
army (275 BCE) & conquers Greeks in S. Italy
Romans rule Italy through:
Colonies guard vs. revolt & Rewarding subjects with various grades of Roads that promote trade &
reward loyalty w/citizenship
citizenship as they show loyalty to Rome
prosperity during peace
Rome ready to expand into the Mediterranean (FC.29)
FC.28A ROME’S WARS OF CONQUEST IN ITALY (366-265 B.C.E.)
After Gallic disaster Rome recovers & resumes
expansion (FC.28)
CENTRAL ITALY
NORTHERN ITALY
SOUTHERN ITALY
Hernici (366--358)
Gauls (361)
Rome takes Capua (343)
Volsci (358-7)
Gauls (360)
1st Samnite War (343-1)
Etruscans (359-351)
Latin League (esp. Tibur
& Praeneste) (358-4)
Gauls (358)
Volsci (346)
Gauls(,349)
Sora (Volscian town) (345)
Acerrae (332)
Fundi & Praevernum
(330-29)
Neapolis (327-326)
Gauls (329)
Last Latin War (340-338)
2nd Samnite War (326-304)
Etruscans (311-308)
Campanii, Sidicini & Aurunci
in alliance w/Latins (340)
3rd Samnite War (298-295)
Aurnuci &/or Sidicini
(337-334/3)
Sabines (290)
Umbrians (310-08)
Umbrians
(intermittently 303-295)
Etruscans (intermittently
302/1-292)
Marsi & other tribes of
Central Abruzzo
(intermittently 312-298)
Gauls (296-85)
Hernici (307-306)
Tarentum, Samnites,
Lucanians, & Bruttians
(282-72)
Picentes (268)
Sarsina (267)
Gauls (283)
Aequi (304-298)
Sallentinei(267-66)
Etruscans (Very
intermittently 283-64)
Rome ready to expand into the Mediterranean (FC.29)
Rhegium (265)
FC.29 ROMAN DOMINANCE OF THE MEDITERRANEAN (264-133 B.C.E.)
Strong Roman state ruling Italy (FC.28)
Roman territory borders new neighbors
Rome eventually wins those wars
PATTERN OF ROMAN
EXPANSION
New mutual fears &/or chances for conquests
Rome starts or is drawn into new wars
PATTERN OF ROMAN
EXPANSION
Two desperate wars vs. Carthage
(264-241 & 218-201 B.C.E.) because:
Rome must protect Interest in Sicily
trade of Greeks in S. which is rich &
Italy
very close to Italy
Rome a major naval power controlling
Sicily & W. Mediterranean
Rome attacks Carthage &
Spanish Celts because:
Carthage had
conquered Spain &
used it vs. Rome
Rome drawn into wars vs. Macedon
& Seleucid Asia because:
Rome still feared
Celts & Carthage
after 2 wars
Brutal & treacherous conquest of
Carthage & Spain by 133 B.C.E.
Constant bickering
Rome attacks
Pirates in Adriatic b/w Grks who run to
Rome for help
Mac. attacks Rome
Rome annexes Macedon, Greece, &
Pergamum in Asia Minor by 133 B.C.E
Empire Serious problems (FC.30)
Ambitious genl’s (e.g., Caesar in Gaul & Pompey in Asia) conquer rest of the Mediterranean (FC.31)
FC.29A ROME VS CARTHAGE (264-201 BCE)
Romans rule Italy by 265 BCE (FC.28)
Rome must protect trade
interests of Grks in S. Italy
Sicily is rich & very
close to Roman Italy
Italian merc’s in Sicily ask
Rome’s help vs. Carthage
Rome increasingly interested in Sicily
Carthage’s long-term
interests in Sicily
1st Punic War b/w Rome, a land power, & Carthage a naval power (264-241 BCE)
Rome builds a navy & beats Carthaginian fleets, but loses as many ships to storms
 Drawn-out war Rome finally wins Takes 3/4 Sicily Later takes advantage of
revolt by Carthaginian mercenaries to take Sardinia & Corsica from Carthage
Carthage revives by conquering
Spain as its new power base
Romans actions
vs Illyrian pirates
worry Macedon
Rome conquers Gauls in N. Italy
(AKA Cisalpine Gaul) (225-218)
Rome fears Carthage’s growing power 2nd Punic War (218-201 BCE)
Roman power in
Sicily worries
Syracuse
Carthag. gen’l, Hannibal, crosses Alps into Italy & wins sev. brilliant victories:
Lures Romans into trap at Trebia R. (218) Ambushes Romans at L. Trasimine (217)
Collapsing center & super. cavalry Surround & massacre Roman army at Cannae (216)
Macedon, Syracuse, Gauls in N. Italy & Grks in S. Italy join Hannibal vs Rome
Romans persevere despite these setbacks:
Build new armies
with loyal Italians
Ally w/ Grk Aetolian Take Syracuse Contain Hannibal in S.Invade & take Spain
League vs Macedon after 2 year siege It. w/o fighting him
from Carthage
Romans invade N. Africa & ally w/Numidians Superior cavalry vs Hannibal’s when he returns
from Italy to defend Carthage Romans beats him at Zama (202) Carthage surrenders
Rome dominates W. Mediterranean Gets drawn into wars in Hellenistic East (FC.29B)
FC.29B ROME DOMINATES THE MEDITERRANEAN (200-133 BCE)
Rome crushes Carthage by 200 BCE (FC.29A)
Mixture of civil & milit. offices in a Roman’s career
Highly competitive & expensive politics
Gov’s need wars to gain glory and $
(but not new lands they would have to defend & rule)
Roman aggression by ambitious gov’s after 200 BCE
Rome drawn into E. Mediterranean affairs because:
Philip V of Macedon had attacked Smaller Greek states appeal to
Rome for help vs bigger states
Rome in 2nd Punic War
Revival of
Carthage’s
prosperity, but not
power Rome’s
growing fear of a
resurgent Carthage
Romans
treacherously
attack & destroy
Carthage in 3rd
Punic War (149146 BCE)
2nd Macedonian War (200-196 BCE) Rome wins
Rome takes no land, but makes Rome declares all Grk’s free, but
Maced. pay for war’s expenses
backs pro-Roman oligarchs
Syrian War (194-189) vs. Seleucid king, Antiochus III
who stirs Greeks vs Rome Rome wins
Rome gives its allies,
Rome takes no land, only $
Rhodes & Pergamum, land
to pay for war’s costs
Grk charges vs Mac. 3rd Mac. War (171-167)Rome wins
Breaks Macedon into 4 states Takes $Rom’s don’t pay taxes
Continuing turmoil & revolts by Grks & Maced’s
Rome annexes Maced. (149) Rome Annexes Greece (146)
Rome’s power in East continues to grow:
Rome intentionally ruins Rhodes’ Attalus III of Pergamum wills
his kingdom to Rome (133)
trade & navy Piracy
Rome dominates Medit. by 133 BCE, but empire problems (FC.30)
Celts in Spain & N.
Italy often more
loyal to indiv.
leaders than to the
tribe Don’t follow
treaties their tribe
made w/Rome
Misunderstandings
b/w Rome & Celtic
tribesBrutal wars
conquest of N. It.
(c.225-175 BCE) &
Spain (197-133 BC)
FC.30 THE BITTER FRUITS OF ROME’S EMPIRE
Rome, still with only a city-state govt., conquers an empire (FC.29)
Problems for Roman peasants:
Amateur provincial gov’s
Influx of Farms ruined Influx of
cheap by long wars & cheap
foreign
foreign
extended
slaves
grain
neglect
Unpaid  Unsupervised Untrained
corruption  Can be as  Unable
to cover corrupt as they to rule
expenses
want
well
Ruined farmers go to cities Can’t find
jobs Become idle mob, selling votes
for food rent, & cheap entertainment
No prof. bur’s to rule prov’s Auction
right to collect taxes to rich MC equites
who over tax provinces
Two political factions:
Prov. govt. made even worse by
Optimates who
Populares
rely on Senate & who rely on pop.
other nobles for Assemb. & mob
political support
for support
Giving armies to Extortion cts
gov’s who use More corruption
them to seize
so gov’s can
power
bribe juries
Problems with the army:
Inexperienced generals 
Few suitable recruits
Low morale & discipline Military defeats  Need
more time to gain exper.
Need professional army
Two major reforms:
Gen’s recruit mob with
promise of landArmy more
loyal to gen’s than to Senate
More scope for long term
campaigns Conquer
new lands
Prolonged commands 
A few experienced &
ambitious generals
More $ & power for a
few gen’ls compared to
other senators
Period of turmoil & civil wars (FC.31)
FC.31A THE FLOW OF POWER IN THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
Problems of ruling an empire w/city-state govt. & army of short-term amateur officials & militia (FC.30)
Senate: Advisory body of 300 ex-office holders whose decrees (senatus
consulta) are not technically laws but have virtual force of law to:
Assign magistrates’ tasks (e.g., which
Rule on technical legality
proconsul rules which province & for how long)
of treaties & laws
Assign budgets to
governors & officials
Senate’s works to maintain its power as a body w/o any of
its individual members getting too much power
Senate controls popular assemblies
through:
Comitia Tributa;
Comitia Centuriata
• Votes on laws that only • Votes on war & peace
officials (who are also • Weighted bloc voting to
senators) can propose favor those who bear the
brunt of the fighting
• Open ballots Control
(which used to be the
votes of their clientes
rich)
(poor dependants)
Senate controls officials who return to
Senate after 1-yr terms:
Consuls & praetors
Tribunes
(who are also members of (who are also members of
Senate)
Senate)
• Control what laws are • Supposedly protect the
proposed to the
poor, propose laws, &
assemblies, their text, & can veto any act of state
who gets to discuss them they or the senate want
Senate controls various traditional and
religious procedures:
Cursus Honorum The minumum age,
Censors: 2 officials elected
Priests (who are also
number of times, & order one can hold
every 5 yrs to choose worthy
senators) that can declare bad
offices: Military tribune quaestor aedile men to fill the Senate to 300 &
omens & postpone govt.
or tribune praetor consul
expel unworthy senators
business for that day
FC.31 FALL OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (133-31 B.C.E.)
Conserv. Sen. sees any
reformer as a threat
Rome’s problems of trying to rule its
empire like a city-state (FC.30)
Ind’s, infl. by Grk
individualism pass new &
disruptive reforms
Tiberius & Gaius Gracchus
use mob & rich Mid. class to
pass reforms Killed in riots
(133 & 121 B.C.E.)
Germanic tribes,
Cimbri & Teutones,
destroy a Roman
army Panic in
Rome
The few gen’ls with
armies upset Sen. BOP
Weakens Roman
traditions & institutions
(esp. Senate)
Ital’s rebel to get
citizenship
Mithridates of
Pontus attacks
Romans in E.
Marius recruits mob to create
prof. army Beats Ger’s, but
army is more loyal to gen’s
than to Senate
Sulla crushes Ital. Rev. 
Wins 1st Mithridatic War
Wins civil war vs. Marius’
followers Reign of terror
& then retires
Pompey commands armies
w/o 1st holding civil
offices Conquers much of
E. Medit.
Rome grants all Italians citizenship
Julius Caesar conquers Gaul
 Beats Pompey in 2nd Civil
War Dictator Senate kills
him (44 BCE)
By 212 CE Rome will extend citizenship
to all free men in empire (FC.34)
Caesar’s nephew & heir, Octavian, & M. Antony win 3rd civil war, vs. Caesar’s assassins (42 B.C.E)
 Splits emp. w/Marc Defeats Antony & Cleopatra of Egypt (31 B.C.E) in 4th civil war
Replaces senate’s power with 1-man rule known as Principate  Era of the Roman Empire (FC. 32)
FC.32 THE AUGUSTAN PRINCIPATE & PAX ROMANA (31 B.C.E.-180 C.E.)
Romans’ traditional &
conservative nature (FC. 26)
Civil wars & turmoil of the
late republic (FC. 31)
Octavian must create a strong one-man rule while
making it look like good old days of the Republic
Augustan Principate where Octavian (aka Augustus) kept only harmless
sounding republican powers that still gave him control of armies & making laws:
Tribune’s powers to propose & veto laws while
posing as the champion of the common people
Proconsul’s powers to control milit. prov’s & army
while leaving non-milit. provs to the Senate
Succession ensured by giving chosen successor tribunician & proconsular powers before Augustus died
Still need reliable army, governors, & bureaucrats for provinces (FC. 30)
Works to get more reliable
provincial governors through:
Bureaucr. reforms
Regularly Equites
paid & trained for
trained mid-level
officials
jobs
Military reforms
Regular pay
Procurators,
Using old
No need for Augustus’ agents Rep’s offices
corruption
who watch gov’s to train them
Aug. gave Cut army
army its from from
pay &
60 to 28
pensions legions
Efficient, loyal & honest provincial gov’s
Honest, efficient, &
stable government in
the provinces
Cheap, but highly
trained & loyal army
guarding frontiers
Rome faces
few outside
threats for
200 yrs.
Pax Romana: Except for
conquering Britain & Dacia, 200
years of nearly unbroken peace &
prosperity throughout the
Mediterranean, with trade routes
extending to China & India (FC. 33)
Medit’s
central
position
fast comm’s
FC.33 THE SPREAD OF ROMAN CIVILIZATION IN WESTERN EUROPE
DURING THE PAX ROMANA (31 B.C.E.-180 C.E.)
Augustus establishes peace & stability (FC.32)
Rome conquers
Britain (FC.32)
Rome conquers
Dacia (FC.32)
Roman troops are stationed in the provinces
Rome
conquers
Spain
(FC.29B)
Peace
promotes
growth of
native towns
into cities
Cities copy
Roman govt.
& customs
Gain Roman
citizenship
Military camps grow into
Roman cities since:
Merchants & other camp
followers settle near the camp
Peacetime
army builds
51,000 miles
of paved
roads
Caesar
conquers
Gaul
(FC.31)
Non-citizen
Citizen legionaries
soldiers (settle by marry local women
camp & become
& settle by camp
citizens after their
after their
discharge
discharge
Influx of trade
& Roman &
Italian
merchants to
the provinces
Heavy Romanization of urban areas & nobles’
villas in W. Europe, but less so in remote rural
areas which keep older native cultures
Roman Empire functions as a virtual confederation of cities which
serve as centers of local government, culture, & civic pride
Cities in East retain older
Greek lang. & culture
Cities less deeply rooted
in W. Emp. than East
Greek culture carried
on by Byzantine (E.
Roman) Emp. (FC.44)
Cities & civiliz. decline
drastically during 3rd
century chaos (FC.34)
Despite the decline after fall of W. Roman Empire, civilization
survives in Byz. Emp. & monasteries in W. Europe Revives
during the Italian Renaissance in 1400s (FC.76)
FC.34 DECLINE & NEAR COLLAPSE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE (I60-284 C.E.)
Few conquests
after Augustus
 Few new
sources of
money (FC.32)
Army returning
from East brings
epidemic Lower
population & tax
base
Growing threats from
Germanic tribes to North
& Sassanid Persians to
East Empire needs
bigger army
Incapable &/or
corrupt rulers after
180 C.E. Huge
bonuses to keep
army happy
Growing luxury
trade w/East 
Huge drain of $
from empire
(FC.32)
Empire desperately needs money
Emperors raise taxes
& debase coinage
Inflation wrecks
the economy
Empire needs
more money
Soldiers demand
more money
Soldiers get mad & declare their own
generals emperor
Disease, revolts &
wars wreck econ.
New diseases
spread by army
Abandon frontiers to
put gen’ls on throne
Germanic tribes & revived Persian
Empire attack weakened frontiers
Near collapse of the Roman Empire by 260 C.E.
Series of strong military emperors who gradually restore empire (260-284)
Emperor Diocletian makes major reforms to revive the exhausted empire (F.C. 35)
FC.35 DIOCLETIAN’S REFORMS & ROME’S CONTINUING
DECLINE (284-c.400 C.E.)
Anarchy & near collapse of the Roman
Empire by 260 C.E. (FC.34)
Need to prevent
further revolts &
assassinations
Need defense vs.
growing threats on
frontiers
Give gen’ls
smaller
commands
Need a much larger
& more mobile army
than before
Empire’s huge size
 Need more
efficient govt.
Split civil &
military
offices
Overawe the populace with:
Divides empire into
Eastern & Western
halves
Elaborate Exalting emperor to Elaborate
palace
demi-god status
ritual
Use Germanic
recruits since
empire’s population
was less warlike
after Pax Romana &
depleted after the
anarchy
Extremely expensive to implement
all these reforms
E. & W. Empires
diverge culturally &
politically, with
Greek dominant in
Eastern Empire &
Latin dominant in
Western Empire
Raise taxes & increase
bureaucracy
Lower morale &
efficiency since
Germanic recruits
refuse to submit to
Roman training &
discipline
Stifles initiative
Lower tax base
CYCLE OF
STAGNATION &
DECLINE IN 300s
People run away
to avoid taxes
People tied to their jobs
to ensure stable econ.
Gradual stagnation & decay of the empire Germanic
tribes have time to absorb Roman civilization before
overrunning the Western Roman Empire (FC. 36)
Though, in theory,
still one empire,
growing dislike &
distrust between
East & West More
fragmented empire
FC.36 THE COLLAPSE OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE (395-c.500)
Diocletian’s reforms (FC.35)
W. Emp. esp. continues to stagnate after Diocletian because:
W. Emp. not as rich More barb’s in W.
More frontier
Growing hostility b/w E & W
Less able emp’s than
or urban as E. Emp. army than E. army emp’s, esp. after final split in 395 threats than the E. in the East after 450
Huns drive Ger. Visigoths as
refugees into E. Emp. in 376
Huns drive Ger. Visigoths as
refugees into E. Emp. in 376
When Visigoths rampage through E. Emp. after
395 E. Emp. diverts them to Italy (406) W. Emp.
pulls troops from Rhine frontier to defend Italy
Barbarians infiltrate emp.
more than invade it
Invasions across
weakened frontiers
Barb’s wanted legal status in
emp.more than to destroy it
Hurts econ. & ability
to defend frontiers
Visigoths sack Rome (410) &
then receive Spain & Gaul
from Rome for driving the
Vandals out of Spain
Vandals escape & conq. N. Afr
 Build navy at Carthage
 Raid & disrupt Medit. trade
 Sack Rome in 455
CYCLE OF W.
ROMAN EMPIRE’S
COLLAPSE IN 400s
Angles, Saxons & Jutes
invade Britain & destroy
much of Roman
Civilization there (FC. 43)
After Huns under Attila are
stopped, Attila dies His
emp. breaks up  Former
subject tribes attack Rome
Franks, once loyal allies of
Rome, take Gaul & found the
most durable of the Ger.
kgd’s in former Roman Emp
Final collapse of the Western Roman Empire by 500 C.E. & disintegration of order in W. Eur. (FC. 41)
The Rise of
Christianity and the
Early Middle Ages
(c.500-1000 C.E.)
FC37 THE RISE OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH (c.30-330 C.E.)
Christ’s appealing message of
love, salvation, & forgiveness
St. Paul spreads Christianity
to Gentiles (non-Jews)
Pax Romana People feel
safe & secure (FC. 33)
3rd cent.
anarchy
(FC. 34)
Christianity spreads slowly
during Pax Romana
Pax Romana People feel
safe & secure (FC. 33)
Only mild & sporadic persecution of Chr’s during Pax Romana
since they will not worship state gods  Seen as treason
3rd cent.
anarchy
(FC. 34)
People question pagan gods that
seem to have abandoned them
Pagans blame anarchy on Chr’s
for abandoning state gods
Turn to more emotionally satisfying
salvation religions, including Chr.,
Intense persecutions (c.250-305)
 Publicity & popularity
Constantine legalizes & actively supports Christianity (312)
Christianity becomes the dominant religion in the Empire because:
Organiz. parallel to Emp’s:
archbishops in provincial
Capitals & bishops in cities
Christians went
out & actively
sought converts
Chr. excluded idea Growing state support
that other relig’s after 312 Shut down all
pagan temples in 382
could Salvation
Rome becomes the most influential of the Emp’s 5 patriarchates because:
It had the prestige of St. Peter founded
After 600, no secular
Pope was only
being the capital of his congregation
patriarch in W. rulers to interfere with
the Empire
there
popes
Emp. No compet.
Rise of an independent medieval papacy in High Middle Ages (FC.66)
FC38 THE IMPACT OF CHRISTIANITY’S TRIUMPH (c.330-500)
Heavy persecution of the Church (FC.37)
Decentralized Church with
a bishop in each city
Christianity becomes state
religion by 400
More pagan intellectuals
convert to Christianity &
graft different pagan (esp.
Greek) Philosophies onto it
Isolated congregations
Different ideas on nature
of Christ’s divinity &
humanity evolve
Many people join for less
than spiritual reasons
(e.g. to gain favor at
imperial court
Heresies & rifts in Church as
these different ideas surface
when Christianity is legalized
Many devout Christians
become hermits Followers
 Organize into monasteries
Rome persecutes or exiles
heretics to avoid divine wrath &
civil turmoil Bad results:
Benedictine monasteries’
moderate rule preserves &
spreads Roman Civ. in 2 ways:
Exiled Arians convert Monophysite heretics
Germanic tribes who
in Syria, Egypt, &
later conquer &
Palestine willing to
persecute Roman
welcome more
subjects
tolerant invaders
Missionary &
Intellectuals flee to
charitable work to
monasteries & copy
convert Ger. tribes & books Preserves
found monasteries
Roman civ. during
among them
Middle Ages
Rapid spread of Arab
Muslims in 600s (FC.46)
Revive Roman Civ. during
Renaissance (FC.76)
FC.39 TRANSITION TO THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE W. MEDITERRANEAN (500-700)
Fall of the Western Roman Empire by 500 C.E. (FC.36)
Trade & contact continues b/w E. & W. Medit. after 500
E. Roman (Byz.) emp’s grant Ger. kings Roman titles because:
Ger’s respect Rome & want to look
like legal rulers to Roman subjects
Emp’s in Constantinople want to
keep legal claim to lands in West
Byz’s too weak to recover W. Emp. Send Ostrogoths
under Theoderic to take Italy in their name (488-90)
Theoderic rules Italy well, showing Roman influence:
Maintains Repairs aqueducts, dredges Is religiously
Roman bur. harbors & drains swamps
tolerant
Justinian I tries to recover the W. Emp. Takes N. Afr. from
Vandals, S. Spain from Visigoths, & Italy & Sicily from Ostrogoths
Lombards invade Italy in 568 Italy split b/w Lomb’s, Byz’s & Popes
Italy stays fragmented until its reunification in 1871 (FC.120)
Areas of W. Mediter. under Byzantines or Germanic tribes heavily influenced by extended contact
w/Rome show signs of continuity & revival in some ways, but decline or change in others:
Areas of continuity & revival:
Areas of decline or change:
Ger. Kings & Byz’s
Old soc. structure of
maintain Roman law rich nobles & enserfed
for Roman subjects
peasants
Agriculture revives after invasions as fertile
abandoned lands are reclaimed
Money econ. (only gold, not silver) & Medit. trade
continue to thrive
Ger’s continue heavy Roman admin., w/o
Roman taxes Tax
enough taxes,
revolts & evasion  gradually broke down
Cities continue as centers of trade. admin.,&
religion, but not production
Army is exclusively Ger. (not Roman), paid w/land,
(not $) & increasingly under local rulers’ control
FC.40 THE RISE OF THE FRANKS THROUGH CHARLEMAGNE (c.500-841)
W. Roman Empire overrun by Germanic tribes (FC.36)
Most Ger. tribes convert to Arian Christianity & persecute Roman
Catholics Unpopular with their Roman subjects (FC.38)
Franks under Clovis convert to Catholic Christianity like their Roman Catholic subjects 
More popular than Arian Germans
Franks build large kgd. in Gaul at expense of other tribes
Frankish kings, like other Ger. kings, split lands between sons (FC.41)
Civil wars that tear Frankish kingdom into 3 parts
Carolingian family reunites & revives Fr. kgd. thanks to:
Adoption of stirrup Better
defense (FC.40B)
Alliance with Church and control of its lands
& offices
Influx of Muslim silver via
Vikings (FC.40A)
Height of Fr. power under Charlemagne (768-814)
Tried to revive
Roman culture
Growing milit. reliance
on nobles (FC.41)
Increasing
defiance of king
Ruled most of
W. Europe
Revived Roman
imperial title
Charlemagne’s emp. is split b/w 3
grandsons Civil wars
Raids & invasions by Vikings from North,
Magyars from East, & Arabs from South
Frankish Empire disintegrates into anarchy (FC.41)
Silver trade w/Muslims
declines (FC.40A)
Reversion to land
based economy
FC. 40A MUSLIM TRADE LINKS AND THE RISE & FALL OF THE CAROLINGIAN
EMPIRE (C.800-1000)
Flourishing Muslim
civilization in 700s (FC.46)
Expansion of trade with
Franks via Russia & Baltic
Muslims & middlemen
Silver which
prosper through
Charlemagne & Louis I
peaceful trade
use to build Empire
Muslim Caliphs
overspend
Muslim Caliphs
overspend
Frankish Empire prosperous &
strong in 700s & early 800s
Trade with Franks by way of
Russia & Baltic declines
Muslims & Viking Less money with
middlemen lose which Franks can
trade & money
build their state
Muslims & Vikings
turn to raiding
Frankish govt. &
trade weakened
Disintegration of Frankish
Empire in 800s (FC.41)
FC.40B THE STIRRUP AND ITS EFFECT
Invention & spread of the stirrup
westward to Europe
Shock cavalry where a warrior, bracing himself with
the stirrup, uses the impetus of the horse’s charge to
drive home a lance couched under his arm
More effective warfare requiring:
Warriors who can afford to train full-time
War horses bred large enough for this new type of warfare
Helmet, armor, & shield to withstand shock of impact in battle
Collapse of economy  land the only
practical form of wealth left (FC.41.1)
Collapse of Frankish Emp.  Viking,
Arab, and Magyar attacks (FC.41B)
Adopting this type of warfare is expensive
but necessary
Give nobles land for military service
Have to tie peasants to the land in service to
nobles free them as full-time warriors
Stratified social structure divided into 3 main classes:
1)Those who pray (clergy)
2) Those who fight (nobles)
3) Those who work (peasants)
Feudalism the dominant political order until the revival of
towns and trade in the High Middle Ages (FC.41B)
FC.41.1 THE COLLAPSE OF ROME’S “GLOBAL” ECONOMY (c.400-700)
Peaceful conditions of Pax Romana (FC.33)
Thriving trade & highly specialized & interdependent econ. based on:
Skilled specialized labor mass
Sophist. network of transp. & trade to
producing excellent but cheap goods
move & distribute goods
Imp. Gov. Coins, rds, Imp. Gov.pays legions in N frontier A large & wide-spread
etc. to sustain trade provinces Stimulates their econ.
consumer mkt.
When 1 area in the empire’s highly specialized
& interdependent economic system collapses
German. invasions
in W Emp after 400
(FC.36)
Weakens the whole
economy & its indiv.
parts needing that
area’s goods & mkts
Collapse of part of the
empire’s highly
specialized &
interdependent econ.
N. prov. econ’s  after 400 due to:
Lost imp. $ as army Violence & turmoil
dissolves
disrupt trade
W. Med. econ.  after 500 due to:
No imperial govt. to maintain roads &
protect trade
Lost resources &
Italy no longer
mkts in N. prov’s getting imper. taxes
Plague + Persian,
Slav, Avar, & Arab
attacks (FC.44)
Aegean econ’s  after 600 due to:
Lost markets in W. Lost provinces, trade
Mediterranean
& taxes
Collapse of political order in
W. Europe after 800 (FC.41)
FC.41.2 THE COLLAPSE OF POLITICAL ORDER IN W. EUROPE (c.800-1000)
Ger. Rulers keep oppressive Roman tax
system Tax evasion & revolts
Revenues decline (FC.39)
Ger. tribes who take over W. Roman
Emp. have no concept of state as
anything more than king’s prop. (FC.36)
Roman rds, bridges & bureaucracy
decay Towns & trade decline
Kings divide state b/w their sons
when they die Civil wars
Economic decline Kings need help ruling:
No schools to train
Land the main form of
bureaucrats Rely on wealth as $ disappears 
Church for bur’s & allies pay w/land for milit.serv.
Rich give Church $
& land to gain
salvation  Rich but
corrupt Church
Spread of stirrup
Shock cav. using
impetus of horse’s
charge
Devout Christians,
typically monastic
orders, reform &
revive Church
Defeated enemies
must adopt stirrup
& shock cavalry to
survive
Land regenerates wealth
in form of crops
Kings must use
other nobles paid
w/land to drive
rebels off their
lands
Nobles no longer
need king as
source of income
once kings have
given them land
Nobles defy kings’ orders
& even rebel vs. them
Feudalism:
Decentralized
political system where
kings & nobles give
vassals land for milit.
service
W. Eur. disintegrates
into anarchy & landbased econ.
Raids & invasions by
Vikings, Arabs &
Magyars
Manorialism:
Decentralized econ.
system of isolated
self-sufficient agr.
estates (manors)
worked by serfs
At least some stability Eventual revival of towns & trade after 1000 (FC.64)
FC.42 THE VIKINGS AND THEIR IMPACT (c.800-1000)
Vikings practice
primogeniture
Viking
polygamy
Warmer
climate
Many landless sons looking
for fortune & adventure
Sturdiness &
versatility of
Viking ships
Long tradition of
sailing &
navigation
Viking raids & exploration
Overspending by Abassid
caliphs wrecks trade with
Franks via Baltic (FC.40A)
Decline of Frankish empire
from civil wars & land-based
economy (FC.40)
More trade & plunder
Establish bases & eventually settle down & found well-run states
Vikings conquer Normandy (911)
Vikings (Rus)
settle Russia
Byzantines send
Orthodox Chr.
missionaries
Byz’s give Russia
architecture, art
alphabet, & religion
(FC.92)
Adopt Chr. & more
civilized ways
Keep restless
Still many landless
nomadic energy
younger sons
Gradually conquer S. Italy
& Sicily (1016-1130)
Conquer Anglo Saxon
England (FC.43)
Norman crusaders
take Antioch (FC.67)
Settle Iceland
& Greenland
Settlements in N.
America (aka
Vinland) fail
America forgotten
by Europe until it is
rediscovered by
Columbus (FC.81)
FC.43 ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND (c.500-1066 C.E).
Anglo-Saxons drive Romans from Britain (FC.36)
Britain fragmented into 7 kingdoms (the Heptarchy)
Viking invasions Destroy all but kgd. of Wessex
Alfred the Great (871-99) stops Vikings & establishes:
Fortified centers
(buhrs) vs. raids
Standing army, half of
which is always on duty
Navy to combat
Viking longships
Alfred’s successors conquer most of Danelaw (Eng. under Vikings) in 900s
Able to build strong unified kgd. thanks to:
Alliance w/Church which crowned & anointed Edgar
as God’s chosen king over all England (973)
New admin. units, shires, not corresponding to old tribal units &
institutions, since Vikings had swept those away in the rest of Eng.
Danegeld turned from tribute to
King’s thegns & reeves who
Loyalty oath from all
Vikings into permanent defense tax
administer justice throughout kgd.
Saxon freedmen
Strong monarchy until accession of 10 year old Ethelred “the Unready” (978)
Vikings renew raids  Knut of Denmark conquers Eng. (1016), but rules it w/Saxon inst’s
When Knut’s sons fight for control of England Edward “the Confessor” regains throne for Saxons
Edward dies w/o an heir His cousin, William of Normandy, claims
throne & conquers England (1066)
Normans graft their customs of strong state building onto Saxons’
unique institutions to build a strong feudal state (FC.69)
The Byzantine &
Islamic civilizations
(c.500-1918 C.E.)
FC44 THE EASTERN ROMAN (BYZANTINE) EMPIRE (c.500-1000 C.E.)
Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Emp. survives after the Western Emp. falls by 500 (FC. 36)
Bubonic plague
devastates Empire
Emperor Justinian (527-65) tries to reconquer the West. Emp.
while pacifying Persians in East with huge bribes Take N.
Africa & Italy after 20 yrs hard fighting
Byz.’s persecute
heresies (FC. 38)
Empire exhausted by wars, plague, & relig. strife Open to invasions
Hunnic Bulgars drive their Slavic
subjects to overrun Balkans
Long war w/Persia exhausts both emp’s
Lombards take most of Italy
Byz’s keep S.Italy & Venice in N.
Arab Muslims conquer Palestine, Syria, Egypt, & N. Afr. (FC. 46)
Byzantine diplomacy, perseverance, & Constantinople’s
fortifications save the empire several times
By 750, Byz. Emp. is reduced to a core of Asia Minor & Aegean More unity
Emp. more ethnically &
Relig. unity after 843 when
culturally unified
iconoclastic dispute is ended
Empire more compact &
easier to defend
Political, military, & econ. revival & expansion of Byz. Emp. thanks to:
Invasions let Milit. provinces
up by 750
Better defense
Slavs forcibly settled to repopulate Good diplomacy to Trade & tolls
Asia Minor Good peasant militia neutralize enemies
 Money
Steady expansion of the Empire under Macedonian Dyn. (867-1025)
Byz. decline after Basil II’s
death in 1025 (FC.45)
Byz’s pass on
Graeco-Roman Civ.
to W. Eur. (FC.76)
Byz’s pass on Graeco-Roman
Civ. to Arab Muslims (FC.47)
Byz’s pass on
Graeco-Roman Civ.
to Russia (FC.92)
FC.45 DECLINE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE (c.1000-1453 C.E.)
Political & econ. stability during
revival of Byz. Emp. (FC.44)
Nobles’ attempt to take peasants’
lands as land values grow
Weaker, non-military emperors as
military needs seem less urgent
Growing pressure on free peasants
Some peasants lose lands to
nobles esp. during hard times
Hard-pressed peasants
must pay even higher taxes
Decline of free Byzantine
peasants & peasant militia
Byz’s must use expensive mercenaries
Declining economy & tax base
Italians control
more Byz. trade
Byz’s can’t keep up
their navy
Italian city-states give naval service to
Byz’s for lower customs tolls
Growing tensions b/w
Byz. East & Latin West
Growing threat from Seljuk Turks (FC.48)
Steady internal decay
of the Byz. Emp.
W. Eur. launches Crusades to take Palestine from Turks (FC.67)
Latin W. encroaches
more on Byz’s
Tensions rise & Byz.
Emp. decays further
Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople (1204)  Further decline(FC.67)
Constantinople finally falls to Turks in 1453 (FC.48)
FC.46 THE RISE OF THE ARAB MUSLIMS & THEIR IMPACT (632-c.1000)
Arabs’ extensive contact
w/Rome & Persia
Persecuted heretics
like more tolerant
Arabs (FC.38)
Arabs ready to
unify & expand
Excellent generals
& desert tactics
Persians & Byz’s
exhausted from long
wars (FC.44)
Fertile ground
for Islam
Dynamic power of Arabs
inspired by Islam
Arabs conquer an empire extending from Spain to India
Tensions within Arab soc.
over who was the legitimate
caliph (spiritual & political
leader of Islam)
Tribal type of rule of first 4
“Orthodox” Caliphs
Turmoil & civil war
Ummayads establish
dynastic principle (651-750)
Stable trade & prosperous economy
 Money to support arts & culture
Adapt many features of
Byzantine & Persian civ’s:
Persian Lit. Greek science, Indian place
& urban
philos., math & value digits
planning
architecture
& Zero
Use prof. bur’s, standing
armies, coinage, elaborate
palaces & court ritual
Spend heavily on archit. &
new cities (e.g., Baghdad)
Stimulates trade w/W. Eur. 
Helps both civilizations
Sunnite/Shi’ite split which
still divides Muslim world
Abassid Dyn. replaces
Ummayads, but fails to
keep empire together
Arabs see need to adapt
Byzantine & Persian
governing techniques to
ruling their own empire
Flowering of Islamic civ
which is passed on to:
Until overspending wrecks
Muslim economy & cuts
trade w/W. Europe
Seljuk Turks Muslim India Italian Ren.
(FC.48)
(FC.52)
(FC.76)
Seljuk Turks take over
from Arabs (FC.48)
Viking & Arab raids hurt
Franks’ emp. (FC.40)
FC.46A THE SUNNI-SHI’ITE SPLIT & ROOTS OF TERRORISM IN ISLAM
Islam’s theocratic nature Islam combining religion & politics (FC.46)
Conquest of emp for
Islam. Riches &
power (FC.46)
Corruption & injustice
 Suppress lower
status Arabs & nonArab converts to Islam
Split over who should succeed Moh. as
Kalifa (deputy) b/w followers of:
Abu Bakr, 1 of Moh’s
1st converts
Conquest of emp for
Islam Contact
w/other civ’s (FC.46)
Ali, Moh’s cousin &
son-in-law
Abu Bakr (632-4), Umar, (634-44), &
Uthmann (644-56) all chosen over Ali
Contact with & infl. of
Zoroastrianism, Chr., &
Judaism, all w/beliefs in
future savior
Ali (656-61) made Caliph Ummayyads overthrow & kill him
 Dynastic principle replaces religion as basis for rule
Followers of Ali (Shi’atu Ali Shi’ites) see these events as sacrilege
Sunni-Shi’ite split in Islam, which is given more religious edge by 2 events:
680- rev. by Husayn, son of Ali & Fatima (Moh’s
685-7- Unsucc. Rev. in favor of another son of Ali,
daughter) 70 members of Ali’s family massacred Mohammed, as Imam, Islam’s true & rightful leader
at Karbala Only 1 son of Husayn, Ali, survives
 Belief he’s still alive & hidden by God
Theme of suffering & expiation makes Shi’a even
more of a religious movement
He will return as Mahdi (“rightfully guided one”) to
restore just rule Messianic theme in Shi’a Islam
Long pattern of relig rev’s centered around Imam, sometimes called Mahdi, & da’i, who preaches &
sometimes fashions imam’s message & leads followers to victory or martyrdom
More radical groups’ beliefs often far removed from mainstream Islam’s beliefs:
Fuse w/local rel’s Beliefs Belief in imam’s miraculous
Rejection of all laws 
such as reincarnation
powers Deification
Justifies murder & assass.
Best known such group the Assassins in 12th
& 13th centuries who targeted Sunni Muslims
more than Christian Crusaders (FC.67)
Basis for present day terrorists in Mid-East
who also carried out attacks in Europe and US
on 9/11/2001 (FC.146B)
FC.46B MUSLIM RULE IN SPAIN AND ITS IMPACT (711-1492)
Strongly centr. Roman state (FC.32)
Arabs let local officials keep offices
Rapid growth of Muslim emp. (FC.46)
N. Afr. Moors led by Arabs easily conquer Spain (711 CE)
 Widespread destruction due to:
Franks stop
Moors in Fr.
(FC.40)
Continued resistance
by Visigoths
Semi-civ. nature
of Moors
Moors rebel vs. Arab
ruling class
Colder
climate in NW
Christian Kingdoms of Portugal, Leon, Castile, & Leon survive in North
Ummayad Abd al-Rahman, fleeing fr. Abassids, takes over in 756
Highly centralized rule & cultural golden age centered at Cordoba (912-1008):
Rising
power of
Chr. Kgd’s
Flourishing
Take title of Caliph to counter Extensive irrigation projects, & Library with
archit. & music claim by Shi’ite Fatimids in Eg.
400,000 books
industries Thriving ec.
Learning revives in W. Eur. (FC.64)
Civil wars over throne
Rising
power of
Chr. Kgd’s
Strife b/w Berbers & Arabs
Cordoba Caliphate fragments into 6 main Taifa (party or
faction) kingdoms that revive culture & economy
Relig. Fervor of W. Eur
Chr’s who come to Sp.
to fight for the faith
Sp. Christian
Kgd’s advance
vs. Sp. Muslims
Unif. Of
Castile &
Aragon
(1469)
Relig. Fervor of N Afr
Muslims who come to
Sp. to fight for the faith
Sp. Muslim
Kgd’s try to
retake lands
Unif. Of
Castile &
Aragon
(1469)
By 1250, Sp. Chr.kgd’s have taken all
the Iberian Peninsula exc. Granada in S.
Genoa
controls
Gran’s
trade
Nasrid Granada (1250-1492) hangs on in south due to exc army, help
from N. Afr., & extensive network of forts & watchtowers
Final fall of Granada to Castile in 1492 Jews expelled & Muslims under
growing persecution & pressure to convert to Chr.
Less
help
from N.
Africa
FC.47 ARAB SCIENCE AND ITS LEGACY (c.750-1000 C.E.)
Islamic belief there is no conflict between reason & faith
Contact with Byz. & Persian civiliz’s (FC.46)
Arabs willing & able to provide accurate
versions of ancient texts thanks to:
Excellent translators since Extensive funding through
Get copies of Greek works
new converts must read religious foundations (waqfs) & through conquests, raids,
caliph’s “House of Wisdom”
Koran in the orig. Arabic
or negotiations w/Byz’s
Arabs take Greek math & science & do their own original work
Math:
Physics & optics:
Medicine:
• Calculated earth’s size
• Fused Indian place value
•Advanced w/o microscope
digits w/Grk math Algebra & •Proved light goes fr. object to eye
•Suturing w/animal gut
trigonometry w/sine, cosine, & •Formulae for specific & absolute •Mercury ointments for eye &
skin diseases
cotangent functions
weights
Peak of Muslim science, civiliz., & empire (c.1000 C.E.)
Arabs soft & open to attack (FC.48)
Invasions by Seljuk
Turks (FC.48)
Mongol invasions devastate
Muslim world (FC.48)
Invasions by Eur.
Crusaders (FC.67)
Arabs become resistant to new &
foreign ideas Arab science stagnates
Arab science passed on to W. Eur. via Muslim Spain
Basis for birth of modern science in Europe during Enlightenment(FC.97)
FC.48 THE SELJUK AND OTTOMAN TURKS (c.1000-1565 C.E.)
Arabs settle down & become more civilized, but also less warlike (FC.47)
Rise of Seljuk Turks which is much like that of the Franks :
Byzantine
decline
(FC.45)
Enter Arab empire as Adopt Sunnite over Shi’ite Caliph makes Seljuk ruler
sultan like pope made
mercenaries like Franks Islam like Franks adopt
Charlemagne emperor
entered Roman Empire Catholic over Arian Chr.
Seljuks take most of Asia
Minor from Byz’s  Next
take Palestine
Turks, like the Franks,
split land b/w sons 
Civil turmoil
SunniteShi’te split
(FC.46)
Seljuks attack Shi’ites in
Egypt Shi’ite Assassins
kill Seljuk Sultan (1092)
1st Crusade able to take Palestine (FC.67)
Seljuks revive as Sultanate of Iconium in 1100s)
Until Mongol invasion (1245) unleashes wild Turkish ghazis (holy warriors) Raid both Byz. & Seljuk lands
Rise of Ottoman state in Asia Minor under ghazi leader, Osman
Growing success vs.
Byz’s & other Muslims
Attracts more warriors
to their standard
Rapid expansion of Ottomans throughout Asia Minor & into Europe relying on
Excellent army using
Central geogr. : Strong sultans & Relig. status as ghazis &
gunpowder & elite slave
regiment, Janissaries
position for trade
b/w Asia & Eur.
professional
bureaucrats
rulers of Islam’s holy
places at Mecca & Medina
Ottoman Emp. controls Middle East, N. Africa, Balkans, & Constantinople (Modern Istanbul)
Long decline after Suleiman the Magnificent’s death in 1565 (FC.49)
FC.49 THE DECLINE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE (c.1565-1918)
Ottomans dominate Mid-East & E. Mediterranean by 1565 (FC.48)
Empire starts to experience problems:
Sultans get
soft & lazy
Spanish Emp.
In Americas
(FC.81)
Emp. too big to launch wars Janissaries get
across far flung frontiers
soft & lazy
Portuguese
Emp. in SE
Asia (FC.82)
No major provinces or sources of revenue
added after Suleiman I’s death in 1565
Influx of silver
& gold from
Americas
Ottomans lose
monopoly on
spice trade
Rapid
Inflation
Lose
revenues
Econ. decline of
Ottoman Emp.
Military & econ. decline of
Turkish feudal cavalry who
relied for survival on
plunder from new
conquests  Revolts
Ottomans fail to keep up
with new fortress &
military technology &
revival of Roman drill &
march being used in Eur.
Major milit. defeats vs.
Austria in1600s (FC.91)
Steady political & economic decay of the Ottoman
Empire until its demise in 1919 after World War I
Eventual emergence of modern
Arab nations (FC.146A)
Foundation of modern Turkey by
Kemal Atatturk in 1921 (FC.128)
Influx of Jewish settlers after WWII
 Found israel in 1948 (FC.146A)
Classical India to
c.1800 C.E.
FC.50 THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN CIVILIZATION (c.1500-500B.C.E.)
Fall of Indus River civilization (FC.12)
Introduction
of coinage
from Persia
Use of iron
which can cut
through rain
forests
Aryan culture characterized by:
Patriarchal
warlike society
Powerful
priesthood
Polytheistic
religion
Renewal of sea
trade w/middle
East
Rice agric.
which can
support large
populations
Center of power shifts from more sparsely populated
Indus R. in W. to heavily populated Ganges R. in E.
Probable
survival &
influence of preAryan culture &
religion (FC.12)
Aryan culture characterized by:
Large popul. Powerful kings Large middle
class from
to supervise
from rice
trade
irrigation
agric.
Ancient Sanskrit
in Vedas
increasingly hard
to interpret over
time
More complex soc. Aryans
concerned ~status vs non-Aryans
Only Aryan priests (Brahmins)
can read & interpret them
Indian society rigidly set into
castes with Aryans in top three
castes, justified by karma &
made acceptable by
reincarnation & hope of better
life to come
Ind. mystics reject rigid rituals &
old interpretations of the gods,
& instead strive for spiritual
enlight. & union w/the one
pervading spirit of the universe:
Brahman
Newcomers put into new castes
that both assimilated them into
Indian society & kept them
separate from each other
Opens way for more philosoph.
speculation Buddhism &
Jainism which break totally from
Brahmins’ authority
Despite political & social disunity, India unified
by religious ideas Unique culture flourishes
under Maurya & Gupta dynasties (FC.51)
A
FC.51 INDIA FROM THE MAURYAS TO THE GUPTAS (C.325 B.C.E.-711 C.E.)
Ind’s geog. Disunity (FC.12)
Ind. unified by philos. (FC.50)
Chandragupta Maurya (319-298
BCE.) founds emp. in N. Ind.
Roads & irrig.
Big army, Cent.
projects prosp.
gov. & spies
Asoka (269-232 B.C.E.) rules
w/Buddhist idea of non-violence:
Sent out Budd. Public works to
missionaries help his subjects
Non-violence weakens army 
Mauryans fall (c.185 B.C.E) 
Grks rule NW India
Kushan Kgd in N. Ind.
(78-c.300 C.E.) Trade
w/Rome & China
Use
Indian civ. Greek
Chin. spread to SE infl. in
titles Asia by trade art
For. infl.Split in Buddhism
Gupta Dyn. (319-c.500) rules N.
Ind.  Golden age of Ind. civ.
Hinyana: Each Mahayana:
person must Buddha helps
earn nirvana
save us
Math: pi, decimal Literature, arch.,
system & zero
art & astron,
Hindu Brahmans win converts
in countryside w/ ideas of:
All gods as part Dharma, karma,
of Brahma
& reincarnation
Hinduism becomes dominant
relig. in India while Buddhism
spreads across E & SE Asia
After Guptas fall, Hinduism faces
new challenge from Islam (FC.52)
FC.52 THE COMING OF ISLAM TO INDIA (711-c.1700 C.E.)
Arabs defeat Chinese army at Talas R. in 751 (FC.46
Islam the dominant religion in Central Asia north of India
New waves of Muslims invade from NW
Are gradually absorbed by Ind. Civ. Until:
Arabs conquer NW India & rule fairly
despite differences w/Hindus:
Egalitarian Muslim Islam’s monotheism
soc vs.Hindu castes vs. Hindu Polytheism
Arabs stopped by Hindu Rajputs:
Claim descent
from Huns
Fight ritualized
wars Chess
Muslim Turkic invaders
Sultanate of Dehli (1206-c.1500)
Cultures slowly blend
Mystical branch of Some lower castes
Islam (Sufism)
convert to Islam
Some Muslim castes Some intermarriage
Mughal Dyn. (1526-c.1700) rules
most of India w/wise policies
Use Hindu rajputs as Religious tolerance &
intermarriage
allies & officials
Further blending of cultures:
Art, architecture,
& music
Persian + Ind.
Lang’s Urdu
Aurangzeb’s expensive wars & persecution of Hindus Emp’s declline  British take over India (FC.123)
Classical China
to c.1800 C.E.
FC.53 EARLY CHINA AND THE PATTERN OF ITS HISTORY(c.1500-500 B.C.E.)
Most fertile land is in E. 1/3 of China  Pop. concentrated in E. River valleys
Mts., jungles, steppe, & ocean isolate China
 Feels it is unique & superior “Middle Kgd”
Irregular & massive floods Major irrig. &
flood control projects Strong central govt.
Hydraulic civ. evolves in Huang He River Valley after 2000 B.C.E.
Mandate of
Heaven justifies
good dyn’s & rev.
vs. bad dyn’s
Shang Dyn. (c.1500-1028 B.C.E.) Sev. developments in Ch. civ.
Combining priestly &
polit. roles No
separate priest class
Silk textiles, carved
jade & highly
developed bronze
Mandate of
Heaven justifies
good dyn’s & rev.
vs. bad dyn’s
Ideographic writing
Chinese Civ. spreads
across E. Asia
Energetic new dynasty, often semi-civilized nomads, takes over & revives China
Restore govt. & civil Lower taxes, redistribute land to peasants
& restore irrigation & flood control
service exam system
RECURRING CYCLE OF
CHINESE HISTORY
Restore army & the
Great Wall
RECURRING CYCLE OF
CHINESE HISTORY
Prosperous soc. until neglectful emp’s take over
Corruption, High taxes & loss of peasant lands
Army is neglected & Great Wall not maintained
Peasant revolts
Raids & invasions
Central government steadily weakens
N. Nomads est. Zhou dyn. (1028 B.C.E.) Follow cycle of Ch. history “Age of Warring States” (481-221 B.C.E.) (FC.54)
Intellectual ferment due to changes in Ch. soc. 2 new philosophies
Confucianism: Harmony in soc.
Taoism: Harmony in life requires
requires strictly defined relationships
natural balance & flow b/w
based on rigid hierarchy
passive/female Yin & active/male Yang
Heavy infl. on civil serv.
exam system & soc.
Confucianism & Taoism along w/ Buddhism complement
each other & provide balance to Ch. civ.
Heavy infl. on Ch. medicine &
art (esp. landscapes)
FC.54 IMPERIAL CHINA: THE QIN & HAN DYNASTIES (500 B.C.E.-220 C.E.)
Rise of towns, trade, & middle class during Zhou Dynasty (FC.53)
Local princes
replace village
leaders with
their own
agents to
collect taxes
Local princes build canals for transp. & irrig.
Princes get tolls Better able to feed Princes claim
cities & armies newly dev. lands
from rising trade
Local princes
raise own
armies Less
distinction b/w
princes & Zhou
emp’s
Growing wealth & power of princes
Indep. & competing princes “Age of Warring States”( 400-221 B.C.E.)
Shih Huang Ti unites China Qin Dyn. (221-202 B.C.E.) & several far reaching reforms & projects
Lowered taxes & Redistributed land toMakes new provinces & Uniform laws, taxes
Great Wall vs.
peasants
restored canals
non-hereditary gov’s & wt’s & measures nomad horsemen
Censorship, repression, & huge tax & labor burdens Rebellions Fall of Qin
Dyn. Rise of Han Dyn (202 B.C.E-220 C.E.) Continued many Qin policies:
Kept land redistr. Improved govt. with civil service exams Excellent Maintained Great
to peasants
bureaucrats Still a high value put on education
Wall & large army
“Pax Sinica” (Chinese peace), a period of prosperity & cultural flowering:
New tech: rag paper, Chinese cultural
Buddhism comes Expanded trade on
water clocks, astron. influence spreads from India 1 of the
Silk Rd. Brief
across E. Asia
& acupuncture
“Three Doctrines”
contact w/Rome
Huge army & bur. Heavy taxes
Peasants lose lands to nobles
Peasants revolts
Frontier defenses not kept up
 Nomadic raids & invasions
Fall of Han dyn. Period of chaos (FC.56)
FC.55 THE PARALLEL IMPACTS OF DISEASE ON CHINA AND ROME
By 500 BCE, older civilizations in Mid East & (probably) India have adapted to “civilized” infectious diseases (FC.6)
Spread of civiliz. to
China (FC 53).
Spread of civiliz. to
Mediterranean (FC 17).
Relatively free of disease because:
Wheat & barley Little Cooler &
Little irrigation No
biological disruption drier climate parasitic diseases
In 2nd cent C.E. Rome & China establish trade links
across Eurasia & encounter diseases of older civ’s
Civ. diseases of Mid-East & India spread to fringe of Eurasia
Smallpox &
measles hit
China in 161,
310, & 322
Smallpox &
measles hit
Rome in 165
& 251 C.E.
Christ. rises
in response
(FC.37)
Pop. loss &
fall of Rome
(FC.36)
Plague hits Persia
& Byz’s in 500s
Buddh. rises
in response
(FC.50)
Bubonic Plague
originating in
India or Africa
Pop. loss &
fall of Han
Dyn. (FC.54)
Plague hits China
from 600s-800s
Allowed rise of Arab
Muslims in 600s
Decline & fall of T’ang
Dynasty by 906
Civ’s adapt to diseases by 900
CE Pop. & towns recover
China adapts to diseases by 900
CE Pop. & towns recover
Revived civ’s vulnerable to return of plague in 1300s (FC.71)
FC.56 CHINA AT ITS HEIGHT: THE SUI & T’ANG DYNASTIES (220-906)
Fall of Han Dyn. (FC.54)
Wars & chaos, but also tech. innovations (wheel
barrow, seed sower, & water mill to save labor
Kingdom of Wei in N. combines nomadic energy & Chinese
influence  Able to defend vs. nomads further N.
Sui Dynasty (581-618) in south which reunites China
Restores the China’s W- E rivers linked by Campaigns
Great Wall canals Easier trade b/w N & S vs. nomads
All done at tremendous cost in lives & money  Widespread revolts & fall of Sui Dyn.
T’ang Dyn. (618-906) replaces Sui, & builds on its work much as Han Dyn.
Built on Qin Dyn’s work Restored & expanded Chinese power in E. Asia:
NE into Korea (660-68) with
W. into Tibet & Cent. Asia until
halted by Arabs at Talas R. (751) cultural influence reaching Japan
South into rainforests & rice
growing regions of SE Asia
Flourishing culture with exchange of
ideas on religion, tech., etc,
Chinese civil service exams &
bureaucrats dominate Chinese soc.
Thriving trade,
dev. of credit,
paper $, & better
rice agr. In S S.
China’s
prominence
Depend on costly &
unreliable nomad
mercenaries Lose
battles & provinces
to nomads
Govt. grants them estates,
taking land from peasants &
increasing their tax burden
Confucian influence
 China reacts vs.
foreign influence
Less progressive &
more inward looking
Corruption & neglect of flood
control & irrigation Famine
Invasions & peasant revolts Fall of T’ang
& eventual rise of Song Dynasty (FC.57)
Literature &
painting, which.
showed Taoist
influence in its
excellent
landscapes
FC.57 THE SUNG DYNASTY (960-1279) & MONGOL RULE (1279-1368)
Fall of T’ang Dynasty in 906 (FC.55)
Powerful kingdom of semi-civilized
nomads, the Khitan, rule N. China
Sung Dyn. in S. Nomads stopped
by rice paddies & lack of pasture
Sung help Jurchen (tribe even further
N.) dest. Khitan in middle Jurchen
turn vs. Sung & drive them further S.
Sung Dyn. thrives in S. where rice agr. supports big pop., strong econ. & bur, but few cavalry:
Highly urbanized soc. Women’s Invention of paper money Tech. innovations: water clock,
labor needed less  lower status to avoid carrying cash gunpowder & wood block printing
Expansion of overseas trade to SE Asia & Indian Art, esp. landscape ptg., emphasizing nature &
Ocean, since nomads had cut overland Silk Rd. empty space in the spirit of Taoism & Buddhism
Emperors, absorbed in their own pleasures, ignore growing signs of trouble
Rely on expensive army & tribute to Help Mongols destroy Jurchen No
Jurchen in N. to keep the peace
buffer vs. more dangerous Mongols
No attempt to solve probl’s of
debt & forced labor Turmoil
Genghis Khan conquers N. China, but S. China’s
fortified cities & waterways slow Mongols’ progress
Mongol Empire, stretching from Pacific to E. Eur.,
finally conquers S. China (1279) during reign of
Kublai Khan
Used foreign rather
than bureaucrats &
script
Safe travel on Silk Rd More
contact with Europe
Strict rule
discouraged
innovations in arts
Interest in China Age of Exploration (FC.81)
Dissension within
Mongol ranks
Mongol rule very unpopular
Corruption among
Mongol bur’s
Mongol rule in China overthrown (1368) & replaced by Ming Dynasty (FC.57)
FC.58 THE MING & EARLY QING DYNASTIES (1368-c.1800)
Strong native rule restored by Ming Dynasty (FC.56)
Strong prosperous empire ruled from Beijing in North:
Restore civil service exams Extend Chinese rule to old Reforestation, canal &
& position of mandarins
borders of Han Emp.
dike repairs & tax reform
China once again politically & culturally dominates E. Asia:
Jesuits from Europe exchange Sailing exped’s to India & E. Africa to
tech. & scientific ideas w/China
spread trade & Chinese influence
Until emperors lose interest
in govt & retreat to luxury of
the forbidden City in Beijing
Architecture develops with
arched bridges & curved roofs
Until hereditary offices in
army caused its gradual
deterioration
Corruption & neglect of flood
control & irrigation Famine
Nomadic raids from North & pirate raids from Japan
 Decline of Ming Dynasty
Semi-nomadic Manchu from Manchuria rule
China as Qing Dynasty (1644-1911j) while
maintaining Chinese govt. & scholarship
Greatest expansion of China’s borders & contact with
outside world in China’s history
Import new crops from
Americas: sweet potatoes,
corn, & better strains of rice
Chinese agr. expands to
uplands of some of its rivers
Franciscans & dominicans
preach vs. Confucianist ideas &
practices
Population grows to 350m. by
1800 Serious economic &
environmental strains
Soil erosion & deforestation 
Disastrous floods downstream
China cuts off most contact with
Europe Chinese technology
starts to stagnate
China open to aggression from W. Eur. In 1800s (FC124)
Classical Japan
to c.1800 C.E.
FC.59 THE DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY JAPAN
Few invasions
Less need for
strong govt.
Japan mostly mts.
Few resources
Japan being islands
Less contact
w/Asia  Pick &
choose for. ideas
Resourceful traders
& craftsmen
Japan politically
fragmented 
feudal warfare
Small intensively
farmed plots 
Cooperative soc.
Civilization comes later to Japan
Yayoi Culture (c.300 B.C.E.) importing tech. from Asia
Yamato Culture (c.300 C.E.) from Asia with horses & better iron tech.:
Shintoism which reveres cleanliness, nature, & head of Clans (Uji) who gradually absorb each other through
Yamato clan as its religious leader
marriage, relig. ties & diplomacy as well as war
Yamato Clan unifies Most of Japan by 400 C.E. Japan more open to Chinese influence:
Confucianism Respect authority & strict hierarchy Buddh. scriptures Use writing to keep govt. records
Growing centralization of the state despite resistance
Taika Reforms (645 C.E.) to adapt Chinese govt. techniques to Japan:
Permanent
capital at Kyoto
Turn hereditary nobles Census & redistribution of
into appointed officials
land to peasants
Systematic
taxation
Taiho Law Code (702), based on Chinese code, organized govt. w/strong
emphasis on court ceremony & ritual rather than military strength
Increased power of emperor & court, but with Japanese modifications:
Omission of Mandate of Heaven Officials & monasteries tax exempt
Even bad emp’s ran little
risk of revolution
Narrower tax base & greater
burden on the poor
Birth still basis for promotion
Hereditary nobles kept
status in Japan
Still a step forward in the development of Japanese state (FC.60)
FC.60 JAPAN FROM THE HEIANKYO PERIOD TO THE RISE OF THE SAMURAI
Tax exemptions
hurt state (FC.59)
Influence of T’ang Dynasty
Powerful Budd. Monasteries
Powerful rural
nobles (FC.59)
Move capital to Heian-Kyo (Kyoto), modeled after Chin. capital, Ch’ang-an
Fujiwara family intermarries with emperors & rules for them
Rival buddhist sects
est. monasteries & own
armies  Chronic
source of trouble
Brilliant court life Influenced later Jap. art &
poetry Nobles & court cut off from rest of soc.
Decline of central govt.
& Fujiwara infl. at court
Revolts by frontier
warlords & native
Ainu Expose govt’s
milit. weakness
Rising power of
provincial warlords
Civil war which Minamoto clan wins Kamakura Shogunate (1185-1333)
Set up the Bakufu, small efficient milit. Govt. ruling over warrior class of samurai characterized by:
The Bushido, a strict code of honor demanding selfless Lighter armor of lacquered iron scales & proficiency in
loyalty, bravery, & willingness to suffer hardships
both the sword & bow, emphasizing flexibility
Hojo regency (1205-1333) which is strong at first
Until 2 unsuccessful Mongol
invasions create problems:
Peaceful conditions & rise of
middle class & money econ
Huge cost to defeat Samurai mad at not
the Mongols
getting rewarded
Nobles imitate rich Inflation cuts into
life at court
nobles’ income
Hojo power seriously weakened
Poor samurai become ronin (bandits)
Ashikaga Shogunate replaces Hojo Regency (1338-1573)
Growing turmoil & rising power of local warlords (FC.61)
FC.61 JAPAN FROM THE ASHIKAGA TO TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATES (1338-1639)
Ashikaga Shogunate (FC.60)
Struggle w/Emperor
Godaigo & outlying regions
Expensive projects cut into
Shogun’s estate & tax $
Rise of constables in provinces
whose power grows as shoguns
decline Turbulent “Age of
Warring States”
Rise of provincial rulers (daimyo), many of them
lower samurai & even peasants, who fight each other,
but also carefully run estates & encourage trade
Better tech.,
especially in
agriculture
Rise of towns &
middle class of
moneylenders
Cultural flowering largely
centered around Zen:
Tea
ceremony
Flower
arranging
Japanese
gardens
Japanese pirates
disrupt trade with
China
Portugal trades Chin.
Silks to Jap. & brings
to guns & Chr.
Japanese econ. & culture + fear of foreigners
 Japan ready to unify
Oda Nobunaga (1551-82 gains control of half of Japan because he:
Encouraged growth of Built milit. power through use of Favored Christians vs.
towns & trade
firearms adapted from Europeans
militant Buddhists
Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1582-98) unites almost all Japan & deals w/changes in Japanese society:
Two unsuccessful attempts to Franciscans preach to lower classes
Eliminates the firearms & social
Suspected of encouraging rev’s
mobility that helped him rise to power conquer Korea (1592 &1597)
Tokugawa Ieyasu (1598-1616) completes unification 
Starts to expel foreigners Strong Mid. Class develops
Flowering of Jap. culture
Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1868) Stable rule & isolation until Japan is forced open by U.S. I 1854 (FC.125)
The High Middle Ages
(c.1000-1300)
FC.62 THE RISE OF THE ITALIAN CITY-STATES (c.800-1100)
Older more deeply rooted cities from
the Roman Empire (FC.33)
Central position for trade with
rich Byzantine & Muslim civ’s
Byzantines guard some Italian towns
such as Venice (FC.44)
Survival of many Italian cities in early Middle Ages,
largely as religious & defense centers ruled by bishops
Cities, esp. Rome under the popes, call in Charlemagne
vs. Lombards Franks take over N. Italy (FC.40)
Frankish nobles left in Italy after the collapse of Charlemagne’s
Empire fight each other for power over Italian countryside
Frankish nobles go to bishops for support vs each other
Bishops gain more rights & privileges
as the price of their support:
Right to build
fortifications
Right to raise taxes for Judicial power
building fortifications to raise taxes
Growing power & opposition of bishops vs troublesome Frankish nobles
Italian bishops summon German ruler Otto I vs Frankish nobles (961)
Italian cities take offensive vs. Muslim
raiders
Pope crowns Otto I Roman emperor
Ger. is core of Holy Roman Empire
More peace & order in Italy by 1000 overseen by a strong German
emperor as Frankish nobles are cleared out & Muslim raids let up
Rising middle class which clashes w/bishops & eventually replaces
them as main power in N. Italian cities
Spread of towns & trade to rest of W. Europe (FC.64)
FC.63 THE MEDIEVAL AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION AND ITS IMPACT)
Warmer climate better
conditions for agric.
Viking, Arab & Magyar
raids let up by 1000 C.E.
Feudalism  more polit. stability (FC.41)
More efficient ways to organize fields:
3-field system  Plants
2/3 fields  33% more
land farmed
Crop rotation using
legumes to replenish
nitrogen in the soil
Less soil exhaustion &
more varied &
balanced diet
Less fallow to plow
2X/yr  More time to
develop new farmland
Cross breeding 
Larger farm
horses
Heavy plow
Cuts deep rich
soils of N. Eur.
No crossplowing
Time to dev.
New lands
Horse collar
 Can pull
heavier load
from chest
Furrows
Some crops
after flood or
drought
Horseshoe 
Hooves don’t
crack from
wet soil
Plow horse works
50% faster & 1-2
more hrsr/day
Need more draught
animals Peasants
share plow teams
More
food
Develop new
lands
Serfs scatter & divide
land in strips  All
get at least some
land plowed in time
Population
growth
Horse’s speed along
w/th 4-wheeled
wagon 2X area
can supply food to
towns
Able to support revival of towns, trade & kings (FC.64)
FC.64 THE RISE OF TOWNS IN WESTERN EUROPE (c.1100-1300)
Chaos of early Middle Ages
Feudalism More stability (FC.41)
Viking
raids let up
by 1000
(FC.42)
Agr. rev.
supports
more pop.
(FC.63)
Church reform
& corruption
cycle (FC.41)
Italian cities
survive &
revive (FC.62)
Increasing trade
Cistercian monks
trade wool to
Flemish merch’s
who attend French
trade fairs
Incentive for nobles to
ensure safe travel
Rise of trade fairs in
the safer conditions
Nobles holding
trade fairs make $$
Italian merchants
expand trade into
NW Europe &
attend French
trade fairs
Rise of towns in W. Europe
More peace &
polit. stability
Lords get taxes
from towns
Buy mercenaries Can crush
vassals w/o towns or $
Inflation Nobles
sell freedom to
serfs for quick $
Decline of nobles,
esp. after Black
Death (FC.71A)
King is
seen as
chosen
by God
Rising class of townsmen
who try to get freedom by:
Buying it Allying w/king Fighting
from lords vs their lords lords for it
Inflation Church
corruption to
meet expenses
King is
seen as
supreme
judge
Decline of Church,
esp. after Black
Death (FC.72)
Rise of kings w/$ Can buy full-time mercenaries & bureaucrats (FC.79)
FC.65 THE RISE OF GUILDS AND LEAGUES
Insecure & limited trade & business when towns revive (FC.64)
Town leagues to guard vs.
raids & tolls
Guilds protect members vs.
outside competition
Keep control of trade Set standard coinage,
routes & sea lanes
weights & measures
Control wages, hours,
Control quality,
& work conditions
advertising & prices
Credit  Can use more $ than they have
cash  Much larger scale trade
Control & limit membership through
training of their apprentices
Trade & economy continue to improve along
with more stable political conditions
Less need for
leagues since kings
can protect towns &
trade
Growing competition
from kings building
strong centralized
states in 1400s &
1500s (FC.79)
Eur. Exploration of
Africa, Asia, &
Americas (FC.80)
Trade routes shift to
the Atlantic & away
from leagues, esp.
Hanseatic League in
North. & Baltic Seas
Decline of leagues & guilds
because of competition from
strong national monarchies,
shifting trade routes, & capitalist
practices
Less need for guilds’
controlled econ’s &
restrictive
memberships
Merchants set up
cottage industries
Undersell guilds
Rise of capitalism
(FC.75)
FC.66 THE RISE OF THE PAPACY IN THE HIGH MIDDLE AGES (c.900-1300)
Church cycle of corruption & reform (FC.41)
Ger. emperors want to
deprive nobles of
Church offices (FC.70)
German bishops &
abbots resent nobles’
power (FC.70)
Cluniac monasteries start
reforming the Church from below
Spread of reforms & growing power of popes & Ger.
emperors who depend on each other for support
Reform popes, esp. Gregory VII,
want to take control of Church
elections from German emperors
Emp’s create College of Cardinals
to keep papal elections free of
outside interference
When Henry III of Ger’s young son
succeeds him, popes ally w/emp’s
enemies for protection
Growing suspicion & tension b/w emperors &
Papacy Investiture Struggle (1075-1124) over:
Who has supreme authority
Who controls bishops &
abbots with all their land & on earth: universal Church or
universal empire
power in N. Italy & Germany
Popes excommunicate emperors to break loyalty of German nobles
 Compromise peace Popes gain voice in Church elections
Decline of German Empire (FC.70)
Popes continue their struggle vs. Ger. Emperors & try to
extend their power across W. Europe  Growing political
entanglements & judicial & administrative duties
Inflation from rise
of towns & money
(FC.64)
Growing challenge
from rising kings
(FC.64)
Church’s growing wealth & power
Growing corruption  Unrest & decline in Later Middle Ages (FC.71)
Protestant Reformation shatters unity of W. Eur.Christianity (FC.84)
FC.67 THE CRUSADES AND THEIR IMPACT (1095-1291)
Seljuk Turks take
Palestine (FC. 48)
Rising piety & popes’ need for support vs. Ger. emp’s (FC. 66)
New agr. techniques
Overpop. in Eur. (FC. 63)
Pope Urban II preaches 1st Crusade at Clermont (1095) to retake Palestine & help
Byz’s 1000s go because of piety &/or greed
Crusaders manage to take Palestine (1099) but face many problems:
Surrounding Muslims, Est. 4 feudal states Tensions b/w newcomers
Lack of $ since Italian
Chronic lack of
who at 1st fail to unite w/o any cent. govt. or & crusaders who settle & manpower since few city-states control
vs. Crusaders
coop. vs. Muslims
most of trade
adapt to local ways
newcomers stay
Surrounding Muslim states eventually unite Saladin retakes Jerusalem (1187)
Series of crusades which fail to take or hold Jerusalem as they stray
further afield
3rd Crusade (1190) retakes
coast, but not Jerusalem
4th Crusade (1204) is diverted
to & sacks Constantinople
5th Crusade (1229) gets Jerus.
by diplomacy, but w/o fortif’s
 It’s soon lost again
6th Crusade (1250) attacks
Egypt, but is taken prisoner
7th Crusade (1270) attacks
Tunis in N. Africa, but fails
Popes overuse
Crusade Tarnished
image (FC.66)
Rise of $ econ Less
interest in religion
(FC.64)
Lagging interest in Crusades though there were important results:
Arabs mistrust foreign
ideas Math & science
decline (FC.47)
Desire for Eastern
luxuries  Age of
Exploration (FC.81)
Exposure to other
civ’s  Italian
Renaissance (FC.76)
FC.68 THE RISE OF THE FRENCH FEUDAL MONARCHY (c.1100-1300C.E.)
Rise of Capetian dynasty which by 1100 had secured throne by:
Sons co-ruling with them Always having sons Keeping lands intact through
to succeed them
Established dynastic principle
primogeniture
Rise of towns in the High
Middle Ages (FC.64)
Church anoints kings as
God’s chosen (FC.64)
King theoretically supreme
judge in kgd. (FC.64)
Kings have several factors favoring them:
Kings anointed by Church
Seem sacrosanct to subjects
Towns ally with kings vs. nobles Taxes
Kings can buy full-time mercenaries
Subjects appeal to kings vs.
their noble overlords
Kings can expand & exert their power & authority
Louis VI (1108-37) establishes royal power
around Paris in severalways:
Uses feudal armies vs Church allies excomm.
rebellious vassals
his rebellious vassals
Takes lands of vassals refusing to attend court
Philip II (1180-1223) brings most of Fr. under
control & & rules it with:
Literate Mid. Class as
bureaucrats
Lower nobles for
military matters
Louis IX (1226-70) further expands royal
power by:
Letting subjects appeal Excluding nobles from
to him vs their lords
Church elections
Restricting feudal nobles’ private wars
By 1300 France is strongest & most respected kgd. in W. Eur. Ready to fight Eng. in Hundred Yrs War (FC.73)
FC.69 ENGLAND & THE ROOTS OF ENGLISH DEMOCRACY (1066-1300)
Strong Saxon state & institutions (FC.43)
Norman conquest of Eng. in 1066 (FC.43)
William the Conqueror rules England w/fusion of Saxon & feudal institutions:
Maintains personal
control over Church
elections & 1/5
England for his royal
estates
Keeps Anglo-Saxon institutions:
-Danegeld, only non-feudal tax in W. Europe
- Loyalty oath sworn solely to the king
-Local officials (sheriffs) filled by lower nobles
who depended on the king for their positions
Gives180 vassals
split fiefs in return for
5000 knights Eng.
subinfeudated into
feudal state
Strong but harsh rule of William I (1066-87) & his son William II (1087-1100)
Strong rule of Henry I (1100-35):
Marries Saxon princess Charter Establishes king’s justice & more
guarding old Saxon rights
efficient govt. throughout England
Henry II (1154-89):
Marries Eleanor of Aquitaine Angevin
Establishes principles of state
Emp. controlling 1/3 France Centuries prosecuting criminals & grand juries to
of conflict w/French kings
view evidence & hand down indictments
John I (1199-1216) overtaxes subjects., gets Eng. put under
interdict by pope, & loses French holdings Forced by
nobles to sign Magna Charta (1215) which guarantees:
Nobles’ right to trial by Concept that king
jury of peers
is not above law
Eng, an island  Few
invasions  Less need
for heavy taxes, big
armies or strong kings
Nobles’ right to due
process of law
After Henry III’s weak reign (1216-72), Edward I (12721307) restores royal power & calls Model Parliament
(1295) to discuss England’s taxes all in one sitting 
Sets precedent of calling all classes together
Eng, an island Trade
Mid Class who combine
w/ Lower nobles in House
of Commons
Growing power of Parliament English Revolution in 1600s  Basis for
modern democracy (FC.96)
FC.70 THE THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE OF GERMANY (C.900-1500)
Church reform
spreads from Cluny
across Eur. (FC.66)
Turmoil after breakup of Frankish Emp.
Germany needs strong rulers (FC.41)
Pope crowns Otto I
emperor for help vs.
his enemies (FC.62)
Saxon Dyn. (919-1024) builds strong kgd. with:
Control of extensive estates Control of & alliance w/Church
Salian Dyn. (1024-1106) builds on Saxon Dyn’s work:
Continue support of Church Have stable supply of Use non-free ministeriales
silver from Hartz Mts.
 Loyal bureaucrats
reform to weaken nobles
Growing power of popes who want to control Church elections
for themselves Investiture Struggle (1075-1122) (FC.66)
Ger. fragments as nobles, towns, & bishops seize power for themselves
Ger. emperors ignore Ger. & try to
build power in Italy & Sicily
Germany disintegrates into worse
chaos
Golden Bull (1352) which makes Germany an elective monarchy
Germany fragmented into over 300 quasi-independent states by 1500
Germany open to invasions & subject to abuses by Church
Protestant Ref. (1517)  Relig. conflicts in Ger. & Eur. (FC.84)
Ger. a battleground for Eur. Wars starting with 30 Yrs. War (FC.88)
The Later Middle Ages
(c. 1300-1450)
FC.71 THE DECLINE OF MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION (c.1300-1450)
New agr. tech’s
(FC.63)
Colder & wetter
climate in 1300s
Pop. growth esp. among young
More expansion of agr. lands
More demand for food & fuel
Inflation & strain on environment
Growing soc. & econ. inequities:
More compet. for less resources:
Lords raise rents Real wages of
in countryside city workers fall
More wars Popular revolts &
Drain resources
more crime
Inflation
Kings react in two ways:
Debase & restore coinage Borrow & default on loans
Europe open to Black Death which kills 30-40% of its population
Problems for nobles &
Church who own land:
Shortage of
Urban grain
markets collapse peasant workers
Problems w/surviving
peasants & workers:
Higher standard of
living for survivors
who inherit property
Several important results
despite revolts’ failures:
Several reactions by
Church & nobles:
Wages for workers Nobles’ milit.
& peasants rise
reputation hurt
Church abuses Sell freedom to
multiply
most serfs
Anger vs Church Schism & heresies (FC.72)
Heavier taxes Labor shortage
Peasant revolts Rev’s for more $
More even wealth
distribution  Econ.
revives (FC.75)
Chronic warfare, (e.g., 100 Yrs War (FC.73)
FC.71A THE BLACK DEATH AND ITS IMPACT
Black Death reduces W. Europe’s population by 30-40% (c.1347-1450) (FC.71)
Cities especially
devastated,
some losing 6070% of their
population
Serious labor
shortages
Workers demand
higher wages &
less restrictive
guild membership
Urban revolts (e.g.,
Flanders, Ciompi
Revolt in Florence,
Mailloten &
Caboche revolts in
Paris)
All put down after
initial successes
catch authorities
off guard
Tyrants & princes
replace more
democratic
communes in N.
Italy & Flanders
Polit. stability & $$
to patronize arts
Urban grain markets wrecked 
Lower demand  Lower prices
Hurt Church & nobles
dependant on landbased econ. & selling
grain for cash
Church abuses to
raise cash: fees for
any services, & sell
indulgences,
dispensations, &
Church offices
Nobles sell serfs
their freedom & land
to get some quick
cash In long run
they lose future tax
revenues
Growing public
discontent over
Church corruption
& failure to give
comfort or relief
from plague
Nobles decline
while free peasants
have incentive to
work harder Agr.
& ec. revival in
1400s
Church challenged
by kings, clergy, &
popular heresies in
1300s & 1400s
(FC.72)
New & broader
consumer mkt.
Rise of capitalism
& the decline of
guilds(FC.75)
Wealth & more secular outlook Italian Renaissance in 1400s (FC.76)
Survivors inherit
prop. & buy land
which is now
cheap Stand. of
living 
Kings & nobles try
to keep peasants
in their place &
raise taxes to
cover loss of tax
base from plague
Peasant revolts as
results of plague,
war, & high (e.g.,
Jacquerie in France
& Wat Tyler revolt
in England)
All put down after
initial successes
catch authorities
off guard
Although nobles
regroup & crush
peasant revolts
w/savage brutality,
their reputations &
military prestige
are seriously hurt
FC.72 THE DECLINE OF THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH (c.1300-1436)
Rise of Popes (FC.66)
Rise of Fr. Mon. (FC.68)
Philip IV of Fr. & Pope Boniface VIII argue over control of Church taxes
Philip’s agents kidnap Boniface & he dies  Intimidated cardinals elect
French pope who stays at Avignon (Papal terr. surrounded by France
“Babylonian Captivity” (1309-77), period of Fr. dominance of Papacy
Popes move back to Rome to
avoid war & turmoil in France
Popular discontent with the
Church, esp. in England
When pope dies, angry Roman
mob intimidates Fr. Cardinals
into electing Italian pope
John Wycliffe translates Bible
into English & claims it is sole
source of religious truth
French cardinals return to
Avignon & elect French pope
Condemns any Church rites &
beliefs not found in Bible
Hundred Years War
(FC.73)
“Great Schism” (1377-1417) splits
Eur. b/w loyalty to Fr. popes in
Avignon & Ital. popes in Rome
Wycliffe’s Bible Lollard heresy
 Differs w/Ch. on sev. pts. Mild
repression in 1370s
Controversial idea of Church
Council to restore Church unity
Wat Tyler Rebellion  More
severe repression (FC.71)
Council of Pisa (1409) creates new
pope, but other 2 won’t resign
Jan Hus spreads Heresy in
Bohemia vs. Church & Ger. rulers
Council of Constance :
Kills Hus despite safe
Replaces all 3 popes
conduct Hussite Wars
w/new one  Ends
Great Schism but hurts (1420-36) Boh’s win
reforms but stay Cath.
Popes’ authority
Foundations for the Protestant Reformation (FC.84)
FC.73 THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR (1337-1453)
Fr. Suspicion of Eng’s strong
econ ties w/Flanders (FC.68)
Continuing Eng. hold on Fr
Gascony & Guienne (FC.69)
Death of Charles IV of Fr. w/o male heir
Edward III of England declares war when denied his claim to Fr. throne
Eng. esp prepared to fight a new kind of warfare with:
Mercenary armies
replacing feudal levies
Peasants trained &
armed w/longbows
Growing use of artillery &
gunpowder
Eng, w/strong
leaders win
vict’s & Fr lands
Until weak kings
rule in Fr. & strong
kings in Eng
Until weak kings
rule in Eng &
strong kings in Fr
Fr. beat Eng. &
regain lands
Eng. ravage Fr. lands & defeat 2
larger Fr. Armies Conquer much
of Fr Tr. Of Bretigny (1360)
Unpaid Eng. mercenaries cont.
ravaging Fr Fr. renews war
Retakes lands through sieges &
avoiding direct battles
Henry V of Eng renews war &
regains half of Fr. using longbowmen, artillery, & the
devastation of French lands.
Inspired by Joan of Arc, Charles VII
uses standing army, firearms, and
artillery vs. fort’s to drive out Eng.
After 1450, France & England
develop as separate nations (FC.79)