Theory
 Theory: a systematic explanation for the observation
that relate to a particular aspect of life (Juvenile
Delinquency) or socio-political process (Conflict,
Peace, Social Stratification etc.).
 In science, a way of looking at a field that is intended
to have explanatory and predictive implications. The
task for the philosophy of science has often been posed
in terms of demarcating good or scientific theories
from bad, unscientific ones (see Falsifiability), OUP
Dictionary of philosophy (2008).
 Today, SS theory has to do with what is; not what
should be (E. Babbie 2012).
tive
Research Trend adapted from
Wallace's model of science the
Logic of Science of Soc.
Theories
Empirical
Generalizatio
n
Hypothesis
Observation
Deductive
Paradigm
Etymology of Paradigm: An etymological analysis
shows us that the word comes from the latin word
‘paradigma’, and appears in Greek as ‘paradeigma’,
whose English translation is ‘example’, or as its earlier
form ‘paradeiknunai’. The prefix ‘para-‘ meaning
‘alongside’, and ‘deiknunai’ meaning ‘to show,’ so the
two words together sound as ‘alongside shown’ or
‘what shows itself beside’. But what is it that we “show
alongside” or that “appears alongside”?
"How a Paradeigma to Paradigm"
To exact the meaning of "paradigm" we need to trace
out the works of Plato and Aristotal. Plato used
‘paradeigma’ - pattern, example, sample.
According to him sometimes the paradigm acts from
sensible things to ideas, whereas sometimes it acts
from ideas to the things.
In the sense that the generality or the idea does not
result from a logic consequence by means of induction
from the exhaustive enumeration of the individual
cases. Rather it is produced by the comparison by only
one paradigm, one singular example, with the object or
class that the paradigm will make intelligible.
Paradeigma to Paradigm
 For Aristotal "paradeigma" is rhetorical counterpart of
dialectic induction, "When two statements are of the
same order, but one is more familiar (knowable) than
the other, the former is an "example (paradeigma)"
(ibid).
 Furthermore, he says that the paradigm is more
knowable than the other participant, but does not
discuss this issue any further.
Paradigm (image of subject matter
within a science)
 In 1962, the philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn
published a book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.
Following to him it is an image of subject matter within a
science . In this book he had was greatly focused on hard
sciences (for example how physics is different than
Chemistry) rather than social sciences.
 However, the concept picked up by academics and
intellectuals in a wide range of fields (for example,
Hollinger, 1980, in history; Searle , 1972, in linguistics;
Stanfield, 1974, in economics) and to none was it more
important to sociologists (Ritzer).
George Ritzer
I. what should be studied?
II. what questions should be asked?
III. how they should be asked? &
IV. what rules should be followed in interpreting the
answers obtained?
The paradigm is the broadest unit of consensus within a
science and serves to differentiate one scientific
community (or sub-community) from another. It
subsumes, defines, and interrelates the exemplars,
theories, and methodologies and methods.
Present assumption
 Inter-relationship between Paradigm and Theories
 Theories are only part of larger paradigms ( a paradigm
may encompass multiple theories as well as different
images of the subject matter, methods and exemplars
(specific work that stand as a model for all those who
follow)
For example state of social exclusion and inclusion in
this changed Nepali social and political context.
The Process of Paradigm Shift
(Ritzer)
Paradigm I
Crisis
Normal Science
Revolution
Anomalies
Paradigm II
Paradigm
Case II
Incremental/Shifting
Across the Periodizations
Rana Regime
Penchant Regime
Multiparty Democracy
Loktantra
Epistemology
 Episteme: Geek meaning "knowledge,
understanding", ology "study of", it is a branch of
philosophy with the nature and scope of knowledge
 Epistemology is a crucial philosophical concept for
social scientists, which considers questions to do with
the theory of knowledge. Essentially, the two positions
of positivism and interpretivism two epistemologies.
They differ in terms 0f their views about the status of
different claims to knowledge and about how to judge
knowledge claims.
 "KD that"; KD how; acquaintance-KD)
Positivism
1. Knowledge is based on
phenomena that are directly
observable (phenomenalism).
 Positivism
2. The social world should be
researched using the principles of
natural science (such as
experiments). Such a shared
approach is often referred to as
the unity of scientific method
3. There is a stress on reliability and
generalisability
4. Explanation is achieved through
the formulation of causal laws or
law-like genralisations
(nomothetic approach)
Interpretivism
1. Knowledge is based on
understanding interpretations
and meanings that are not
directly observable
2. The social world should be
studied in its natural state
(using participant observation
and in-depth interviews) to
understand naturally
occurring behaviour
3. There is a stress on valiadity
4. Explanation is achieved
through descriptions of social
meanings/reasons and other
dispositions to action
(ideographic approach)
Interpretivism
Positivism
1. Explanation is achieved through
the formulation of causal laws or
law-like genralisations
 Positivism
(nomothetic
approach)
2. There is use of the hypotheticodeductive method, in which there
is an emphasis on testing given
theory
3. Methods imply
researcher/respondent detachment
in the objective collection of data
4. Analysis is based on the statistical
testing of given theories
1. There is use of the analyticinductive method, in which
theory is generated from the
data
2. Methods imply insider
approach-participation in life
and culture of
respondent/closeness of
respondent and researcher in
the joint constitution of
subjective data
3. Analysis is based on the
verbal description and
observation of actions and
situations form which theory
evolves
What is Literature
 The literature on a particular subject of study is all
the information that have been published about it.
 A debate between a) Primary; b) Secondary
Secondary:
Books, Journal
Articles; Published
and Unpublished
Reports e.g. Police
Reports, Hospital
Files; Electronic
Information
Primary:
Interviews,
Lectures,
Conversations
Review is (Oxford Dictionary)
 Assessment, Examination, Report, Study,
Reassessment, Recapitulation, Reconsideration,
Re-examination, Revision, Appreciation, Criticism,
Evaluation, Judgement
Why we review literature
 Because you would learn (positive and negative)
ideas digesting through previous work in the
particular area that enlarges your perspective
 To uncover better writings style
 Because direct personal experience can never be
enough
 So that you can effectively criticize what others
have done.
 To learn more about research methods and their
application in practice
Why we read a book or literature
 It's a way of avoiding social contacts
 To learn about places you will never visit
 It keeps you off of the streets
 In order to spot areas which have not been
researched.
Main Objectives of LR (Stevens et
al in Blaxter et al. 1999 p11
 To give reasons why the topic is of sufficient
important for it to be researched
 To provide the reader with a brief up-to-date
account and discussion of literature on the issues
relevant to the topic
 To provide a conceptual and theoretical context in
which the topic for research can be situated
 To discuss relevant research carried out on the
same topic or similar topics
Typologies of LR (Bruce in Blaxter
et al. 1999 p11
 As a list: the primary focus is on the listing rather
than on the knowledge contained within the LR
 As a Search: source materials act as an
intermediary directing the researcher towards or
providing an awareness of existing literature
 As a Survey: the student's focus is on the
literature, with his/her interest centred on the
knowledge base of the discipline
Typologies of LR
 As a Vehicle for Learning: the student's focus is
beyond the literature and on his or her personal
development
 As a Research Facilitator: the impact of the
literature moves beyond influencing the researcher
to have an impact on the research project
 As a report: the report is not only a synthesis of
literature relevant to the research, it is a final
representation of interaction with the literature
Use of LR in a Thesis
Body of a thesis
i) Introduction
ii) Literature Review
iii) The settings
iv) Main Text (two or three)
v) Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
Types of Scientific Research
Exploratory
2. Descriptive
3. Explanatory
1.