An Informational Theory of
Empathy
Luciano Fadigaa, Laila Craigheroa,
Ovidiu Lungub, Aldo Rustichinib
a: University of Ferrara,
b: University of Minnesota
Informational Theory of Empathy
• ``Empathy: To understand another person, that
is, to imitate his feelings in ourselves’’
• The informational theory is based on the idea
that we empathize with someone to extract the
information that he has.
• In this view, empathy is not necessarily
increasing with the affinity between observer
and observed, but rather with the value of the
information
Empathy Gain
• The empathy gain is the difference between the
expected utility of the observer if he can observe the
empathic signal and if he cannot.
• The gain follows from the better choice of action that
the observer can make after he has observed the other.
This action is not the reproduction of the observed
subject’s movement.
• For example the action may be better because the
observer can better predict the future action of the
observed
Support for the theory
• Mirror Neurons
• An earlier view on this is from…
Theory of Moral Sentiments (1756)
Chapter 1, On Sympathy
“1.1.1. How selfish soever man may be
supposed, there are evidently some principles
in his nature, which interest him in the fortune
of others... Of this kind is pity, the emotion
which we feel for the misery of others”
Sympathy as simulation
• ``It is the impressions of our own senses only, not
those of his, which our imaginations copy.’’ [TMS,
1.1.2.]
• ``The mob, when they are gazing at a dancer on the
slack rope, naturally writhe and twist and balance
their own bodies, as they see him do, and as they feel
that they themselves must do if in his situation. ‘’
[TMS, 1.1.3]
• Simulation Theory: to understand the others we
reproduce in us their internal state
Is Sympathy symmetric?
“The word sympathy, in its most proper and
primitive signification, denotes our fellowfeeling with the sufferings, not with the
enjoyments, of others.’’ [TMS, I.III.1]
Why Not?
“…a sentiment of envy commonly prevents us
from heartily sympathizing with his joy.”
[TMS, I.II.32]
Sympathy and Envy
Small joys and great sorrows
“There is, however, this difference between grief and
joy, that we are generally most disposed to
sympathize with small joys and great sorrows.
The man who, by some sudden revolution of fortune,
is lifted up all at once into a condition of life, greatly
above what he had formerly lived in, may be assured
that the congratulations of his best friends are not all
of them perfectly sincere.” [TMS, 1.II.32]
• You still have reasons to want to learn from the
friend who had a sudden revolution of fortune,
(and sympathize with him), to learn how you
can do it yourself.
this suggests…
Informational Theory of Envy
Two explanations on envy
• Envy is the social correspondent of regret:
It teaches you that the choice that you could
have made and someone else made was
probably better (counterfactual thinking)
• Envy keeps track of your social rank:
When someone else succeeds, you are losing
ground
Main prediction of the informational
theory of sympathy
• The main prediction of the theory is that the
intensity of the empathic process is
proportional to the value of the information
provided by the empathic signal
• The value of the information is inverse-U
shaped with respect to the affinity of the two
subjects
Hypothesis
• When a subject observes another one, an effort
is automatically made to understand the
intention of the other
• This process is a based on an empathic
reproduction
• The intensity of the activation is proportional
to the value of the information that can be
derived from it
You and the others
In the experiment we contrast the brain activity
of the empathic process when you are looking
at
• yourself (high affinity, but also low novelty) or
• someone else (lower affinity, but higher
novelty)
Areas involved in interaction
with the other
• Superior Temporal Sulcus (STS) provides a
visual description of the observed action
• BA44-45 code the goal of the action
• Insula, which connects both centers above to
the limbic system, decodes the emotional
implications of the action representation
Hypotheses
The interaction will activate areas involved in
communication and empathy
Candidate regions:
• BA44, BA45 (corresponding to Monkey’s F5),
• Insula
• Superior temporal Sulcus (STS)
• Anterior Cingulate, BA6
BUT: how does the activation differ in different
conditions?
Experiment Design
• Basic idea: analyze brain activity when two
subjects are exchanging gazes, in different
conditions
• Implementation:
Experiment Design
• Basic idea: analyze brain activity when two
subjects are exchanging gazes, in different
conditions
• Implementation:
Scanner’s bore
Subject
mirror
mirror
self
other
Large mirror
Face, real or photograph
Experimental design
• The subject goes through different stages,
interrupted by breaks
• In each stage he looks at the experimenter, or
is looked at, or he is looking at a fixed picture,
or is looking at himself.
• 21 subjects, 3T MRI scanner
Conditions
Each condition is described by a pair:
(What the subject does, what the experimenter does)
For example
(Look, Not Look)
describes the condition in which
• the subject is looking into the eye of the
experimenter, and the
• experimenter is not looking back
Five Conditions
•
•
•
•
•
•
Look, Look
Look, Not Look
Not Look, Look
Look at yourself
Look at a fix picture
Eyes Closed Break
Five Conditions
•
•
•
•
•
•
Look, Look (L,L)
Look, Not Look (L,NL)
Not Look, Look (NL,L)
Look at yourself (LYS)
Look at a fix picture (LFP)
Eyes Closed Break
Hypotheses
The activation will be stronger when communication is
either active of possible for the observing subject, and
the information is new.
• Strong activation in (L, L)
• The activation will be smaller when the other is not
watching (L,NL)
• The activation will be smaller when the other is..
yourself (LYS)
• What when the subject is not watching, but the other
is? (NL,L)
(Look, Look) - (Look Fix Picture)
Three main clusters
• Right BA44
• Bilateral Insula
• BA6 and Cingulate Gyrus
L,L-LFP, FDR=0.02, p=0.0008
LL-LFP, FDR=0.02, p=0.0008
LL-LFP, FDR=0.02, p=0.0008
The information from yourself
• The informational value of LL is higher than
LYS
• Therefore BA44 activated less in LYS than in
LL
ERA for BA44Right
0.9
0.8
0.7
% BOLD Change
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
1
2
3
4
5
6 7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
seconds
LL mean
LYS mean
BA44Right
0.70
% BOLD Change (95% CI)
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
-0.10
LL
LNL
LFP
Conditions
LYS
NLL
Evidence
• L,L- L,NL: the visual stimuli are now very
close; the only difference if the angle in the
eyes of the experimenter
• The contrast is virtually identical to the one in
L,L – LFP, with the only difference of STG, in
the section devoted to representation of eye
movements
Evidence
• The contrast LNL – LFP: informational value
is similar, the live individual face moves:
• STG to detect and code face-eye movements
ERA for BA44 Right
0.9
0.8
0.7
% BOLD Change
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
-0.2
seconds
LL mean
L_NL mean
19
21
23
STS in the contrast LNL – LFP
Emotional decoding
• The pattern in Insula is similar to the one in
BA44
BA13Left
0.15
% BOLD Change (95% CI)
0.10
0.05
0.00
-0.05
-0.10
-0.15
-0.20
LL
LNL
LFP
Conditions
LYS
NLL
Is the Left BA44 (Broca’s Area)
active?
BA22Right
0.50
% BOLD Change (95% CI)
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
-0.10
-0.20
BA44Left
LL
LFP
Conditions
0.40
0.30
% BOLD Change (95% CI)
LNL
0.20
0.10
0.00
-0.10
-0.20
-0.30
LL
LNL
LFP
Conditions
LYS
NLL
LYS
NLL
ERA for BA44R and BA44L: Look Look
0.9
0.8
0.7
% BOLD change
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
seconds
Left
Right
The sense of self
NLL–LL, Parahippocampal Gyrus, Right
LYS-LL, Parahippocampal Gyrus, Left
% BOLD schange Parahippocampal Gyrus Right
% BOLD signal change (95% CI)
1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
LL
LNL
LFP
Conditions
LYS
NLL
ERA for ParaHyppocampal Gyrus
1
Perc BOLD Change
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Seconds
Look Look mean
Look Yourself mean
Conclusions
• The interaction activates areas involved in
communication and empathy (BA44, CG, Insula).
• The activation is stronger when communication is
active or possible for the observing subject.
In particular:
• The activation is smaller when the other is not
watching
• The activation is smaller when the other is yourself
• The activation is stronger when the subject is not
watching and the other is, then in the symmetric
situation.