Instructional Design
Instructional Design
Study of effect of CBL
material and approaches
Learning Theory
Helps us design and build CBL
materials
Study of cognitive (mind)
processes that enable us to
learn
Today
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Useful in understanding the
way we think and operate
Very useful to build thinking
machines
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What is IDT ?
“An attempt to relate specific events of instruction to learning
processes and learning outcomes” (Gagne 83)”
Reilgeluth (1999) describes the characterstics of
IDT as :
• An orientation towards design, not description
• Identification of methods and situations
• Hierarchy of methods, variety of outcomes
• Methods are probabilistic not deterministic
•IDT theory has an underlying value or philosophy
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Brief History
• The Soviet launch of Sputnik (1954) initiated US federal funds
to education. UK Responds via Nuffield Foundation.
• B.F.Skinner's elaboration of the theory of reinforcement and its
application to learning that established the Programmed
Instruction Movement.
• 1956 Benjamin Bloom’s ‘ Taxonomy of Educational Objectives …’
intended to help cognitive assessment, later used to specify
instructional outcomes and the design of instruction to attain them.
• The 1960s: Instructional Systems Development put by the military
into their training procedures.
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.. More ..
• In 1965, Robert Gagne published The Conditions of Learning,
• analysis relating different classes of learning objectives to
corresponding designs
• task analysis to break instructional task into subtasks and
sequences
• Norman Crowder and Gordon Pask introduced branching or nonlinear sequencing.
• A shift from norm-referenced to criterion-based testing was
noted.
• The 1970's: Cognitive approach was still dominant Ausubel, Bruner,
Merrill, Gagne on instructional strategies.
• Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak design the Apple I Computer (1976)
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… up to date
• 1980’s PC’s Rapid adoption of instructional systems by
American businesses.
• Microcomputer instruction (CBI/CBT) flourished in this
decade with the emphasis on design for interactivity and
learner control. Systems Thinking
• 1990’s designing learning environments based on a
constructivistic approach to learning and multimedia
development.
• Hypertext and hypermedia influence the field and cross
cultural issues are bridged using the Internet.
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Trends
• Basic Shift from Industrial Age to Information
Age Thinking
• Move from Standardization to Customization
• Driving forces are new communication and
computer technologies.
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Gagne
Between 1949-1958, Gagne was
director of the perceptual and
motor skills US Air Force Lab.
Here he developed "Conditions of
Learning” theory.
• His theory states that there are different
levels of learning outcomes.
• Each requires different type of
instructional event
• Different internal and external conditions
are needed for each learning type.
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Gagne’s Outcomes
Intellect - Discrimination
Recognizing that two classes differ
Intellect - Rule
Apply procedure to do a task
Intellect – Concrete
Classifying by physical features
Intellect – Higher Rule
Apply complex procedure
Cognitive strategies
Select process to solve problem
Verbal information
recitation from memory
Motor skills
Performing a physical task
Attitudes
Choosing to behave according to a belief
These outcomes are the results of the learners’ internal processes of learning
and they provide the learners with the improved performance which we desire.
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Instructional Events
• Gaining attention. Give the learner a stimulus to make him receptive.
• Tell learners the learning objective. What they will learn to do.
• Stimulating recall of prior learning Firing up existing relevant knowledge.
• Presenting the stimulus Display the content.
• Providing learning guidance. Help understanding (semantic encoding) by
providing organization & relevance.
• Eliciting performance Ask the learner to respond, to demonstrate learning
• Providing feedback Give informative feedback on the learner's performance.
• Assessing performance then give feedback, to reinforce learning.
• Enhancing retention and transfer to other contexts, to generalise the
learning by using varied examples.
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Gagne’s ID Procedure
Analysis Phase
1. Identify the learning outcomes we wish to achieve.
2. Break down into a hierarchy of dependent learning outcomes
and pre-requirements give a hierarchy of simple outcomes
3. Identify the conditions or processes internal to the learner
that must occur to achieve those outcomes.
4. Specify what external conditions or instruction must occur to
achieve these internal conditions.
5. Record the learning context.
6. Record the characteristics of the learners.
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ctd
Design Phase
7. Select media for instruction - how will we deliver the
instructional events?
8. Plan to motivate the learner by incentives,mastery or
achievements.
9. Apply the Nine Instructional Events to each learning outcome.
Test Phase
10. Trial the materials with students as it is designed
(formative evaluation).
11. After the instruction has been used, a summative
evaluation can judge its effectiveness.
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Merrill -1Transfer skill
into your lives.
Go public, join
in discussion.
Call up previous
experience. Fire up
relevant stored
mental models
Integration
Application
Activation
Real
World
Proble
m
Demonst
-ation
Learning works best
when you are called to
use your knowledge
Show don’t say!
Concepts – examples
Procedures – demos
Processes – visualisation
Behaviour - modelling
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Merrill -2Activation
•
Start where the child is
•
Recall, relate, describe, apply knowledge from past
experience
•
Courseware can provide a substitute for this
experience
•
Trend to introduce “themes” into instruction eg
‘golf’. These can often distract and so hinder
learning
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Merrill -3Demonstration
•
Multiple representations, alternative points of view
•
Knowledge is both specific and general. Students
learn from specific examples
•
Appropriate use of media
Application
•
App must be consistent with stated objectives
•
App to a sequence of varied problems
•
Access to feedback, context-sensitive help
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Merrill -4Categories of Application
•
Information-about practice requires recall
•
Parts-of practice requires locate, name each part
•
Kinds-of practice needs identification of new eg’s
•
How-to practice requires learner to do the procedure
•
What-happens practice requires learner to predict
result of a process
Integration
•
Publicly demonstrate, discuss new knowledge
•
Learner can create new personal way to use knowledge
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Gardner - Multiple Approaches
Telling analogies
Entry points
narrativ
e
numeric
Approaching the Core
social
existential
Multiple approaches
based on multiple
intelligences
Hands-on
aesthetic
Emphasis on ‘Going Public’
Understanding Content, not
Problem Solving !
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Constructive Learning
Environments (Jonassen)
• “The goal of the learner is to solve the problem or complete the
project “
• The problem / project drives the learner. Learn to solve!
• The problem should be ill-defined so some aspects are “emergent
and defined by the learner”
• Through a progression of tasks, scaffold is gradually removed
Scaffolding
Go
al
Learners’ Performance
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Jonassen Quotes
“… you must provide interesting, relevant and engaging problems
to solve … The problem should not be overly subscribed. Rather
it should be ill defined or ill structured, so that some aspects of
the problem are emergent and defined by learners”
“Start the learners with tasks they know how to perform and
gradually add task difficulty until they are unable to perform
alone”
“What novice learners lack most is experiences. … [Demo’s] can
scaffold (or supplant) memory by giving representations of
experience that learners have not had”
“Modelling provides learners with examples of desired
performance. … worked examples”
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Carroll Minimalism
Principles
•
Learner starts at once on meaningful tasks
•
Minimize reading by allowing learners to fill in gaps
•
Include error recognition and discovery
•
Each activity self-contained, independent of sequence
Basis
•
Carroll’s research at IBM observing users of wordprocessors, databases and programmers
•
Systems approach emphasised structured sequence
and total practice, but neglected motivating real tasks.
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Carroll’s iterative design
• Designers don’t work in a structured hierarchy
• They mix bottom-up and top-down development
• They even allow their design goals to change !
Design 1
Gradual convergence to product
Design 2
Design 3
Trial 3
Product
Trial 2
Trial 1
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Developed Minimalism
More Observations …
•
Desire for ‘real’ activity and not time ‘just learning’
•
Causes people to jump around programmed learning
•
People want to make their own understandings
•
New minimalism - better supported self-initiated
sense-making
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Problems with Classical IDT
Rational Systematic
Creative
Standardized
Customized
Promotes initiative,
diversity, flexibility
Linear
Iterative
Linear assumes humans are predictable. Not true since : all learners are
different, may have different ways
of learning, environment (context) is
important and unknown, people don’t
think logically.
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Cause and Effect
Learner is closed
Knowledge object
Mind not predictable
Mind elusive
No causality
Open system
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New ID -1- New Sciences
Jonassen suggests using Hermeneutics, Fuzzy Logic,
Chaos Theory
•
Hermeneutics - learner must be able to create own
meanings. Also must be aware of their own biases.
•
Fuzzy logic - reality is rarely cut and dry, but often
comes in various shades of colour which are not exclusive.
•
Chaos theory - no cause and effect, more drill does not
imply better performance. Also sensitivity to initial state.
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-2- The Information Age
Reigeluth Shift into the Information Age
•
Instruction needs to be customized rather than
standardized
•
Instruction is learner centered, teacher is facilitator
•
Based on authentic tasks., contemporary not contrived
•
Instructional Design should occur on the fly as the
student uses the materials!
•
Elaboration Theory (ET). There is always an organizing
concept which spawns sub-concepts, and which is taught
first. Each sub-concept may in turn become an organizing
concept.
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ET and Hypermedia
Elaboration
Theory or
Interactive
Media ?
Hoffman makes the link between
Elaboration Theory and Hypermedia.
The web-like linking of ideas well
known in hypermedia described
the functioning of human cognition
better than a linear process.
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Important,
interesting and
provocative idea
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Summary
1.
Instruction is progressive but not strict-sequential
2. Instruction paths fork, cross over and loop back
3. The model of IDT reflects current technology !
Contemporary Instructional Design
• Merrill 5-star
• Constructive Learning
• Carroll Minimalist
• New Sciences
• Gardner Multiple Intelligence
• Information Age
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