4-1
Chapter
4
Learning: Theories and
Program Design
Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
4-2
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Discuss the five types of learner outcomes.
Explain the implications of learning theory for
instructional design.
Incorporate adult learning theory into the design
of a training program.
Describe how learners receive, process, store,
retrieve, and act upon information.
Be able to choose and prepare a training site.
Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
4-3
Objectives (continued)
6.
7.
Discuss the internal conditions (within the
learner) and external conditions (learning
environment) necessary for the trainee to learn
each type of capability.
Explain the four components of program design:
 Course parameters
 Objectives
 Lesson overview
 Detailed lesson plan
Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
4-4
Introduction

Training at the Culinary Institute of America
(CIA) is designed to teach aspiring chefs how to
prepare food (knowledge) as well as develop the
necessary motor skills (e.g., chopping onions).
 These

are types of learning outcomes.
CIA’s training programs illustrate several
conditions necessary for learning to occur:
 Opportunities
to learn by observing an expert
 Practicing
 Receiving
feedback
Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
4-5
Introduction (continued)

As CIA training illustrates, for learning to occur it
is important to identify what is to be learned.
 Identify
the learning outcomes.
Understanding learning outcomes is crucial
because they influence the characteristics of the
training environment that are necessary for
learning to occur.
 The design of the training program is also
important for learning to occur.

Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
4-6
What Is Learning?
Learning is a relatively
permanent change in human
capabilities that is not a result
of growth processes.
These capabilities are related
to specific learning outcomes.
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4-7
Learning Outcomes
 Verbal
information
 Includes
names or labels, facts, and bodies of
knowledge
 Includes specialized knowledge employees need
in their jobs
 Intellectual
skills
 Include
concepts and rules
 These are critical to solve problems, serve
customers, and create products
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4-8
Learning Outcomes (continued)
 Motor
skills
 Include
coordination of physical movements
 Attitudes
 Combination
of beliefs and feeling that predispose a person to behave a certain way
 Important work-related attitudes include job
satisfaction, commitment to the organization,
and job involvement
 Cognitive
strategies
 Regulate
the process of learning
Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
4-9
Learning Theories
Reinforcement
Theory
Social Learning
Theory
Goal Theories
Need Theories
Expectancy Theory
Information
Processing Theory
Adult Learning
Theory
Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
4 - 10
Reinforcement Theory
 Emphasizes
that people are motivated to
perform or avoid certain behaviors because
of past outcomes that have resulted from
those behaviors.
Positive
reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Extinction
Punishment
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4 - 11
Reinforcement Theory (continued)
From a training perspective, it suggests that for
learners to acquire knowledge, change behavior, or
modify skills, the trainer needs to identify what
outcomes the learner finds most positive )and
negative).
 Trainers then need to link these outcomes to
learners acquiring knowledge, skills, or changing
behaviors.

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4 - 12
Schedules of Reinforcement
 Ratio
Schedules
Fixed-ratio
schedule
Continuous reinforcement
Variable-ratio schedule
 Interval
Schedules
Fixed-interval
schedule
Variable-interval schedule
Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
4 - 13
Social Learning Theory
 Emphasizes
that people learn by observing
other persons (models) whom they believe are
credible and knowledgeable.
 Recognizes that behavior that is reinforced or
rewarded tends to be repeated.
 The models’ behavior or skill that is rewarded
is adopted by the observer.
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4 - 14
Social Learning Theory (continued)
 Learning
new skills or behavior comes from:
 directly
experiencing the consequences of using
behavior or skills, or
 the process of of observing others and seeing
the consequences of their behavior
 Learning
is also influenced by a person’s self-
efficacy.
is a person’s judgment about
whether she can successfully learn knowledge
and skills.
 Self-efficacy
Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
4 - 15
Processes of Social Learning Theory
Attention
Retention
• Model Stimuli
• Coding
• Trainee
Characteristics
• Organization
• Rehearsal
Motor
Reproduction
• Physical
Capability
Motivational
Processes
Match
Modeled
Performance
• Reinforcement
• Accuracy
• Feedback
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4 - 16
Goal Theories
Goal setting theory assumes behavior results from
a person’s conscious goals and intentions.
 Goals influence behavior by directing energy and
attention, sustaining effort over time, and
motivating the person to develop strategies for
goal attainment.
 Research suggests that specific challenging goals
have been shown to lead to high performance only
if people are committed to the goal.

Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
4 - 17
Goal Theories (continued)
 Goal
setting theory is used in training program
design.
 It suggests that learning can be facilitated by
providing trainees with specific challenging
goals and objectives.
 The influence of goal setting theory can be
seen in the development of training lesson
plans.
Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
4 - 18
Need Theories
Need theories help explain the value that a person
places on certain outcomes.
 Need theories suggest that to motivate learning:

 trainers
should identify trainees’ needs, and
 communicate how training program content relates
to fulfilling these needs

If the basic needs of trainees are not met, they are
unlikely to be motivated to learn.
Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
4 - 19
Expectancy Theory
 Expectancy
theory suggests that a person’s
behavior is based on three factors:
Expectancy
Instrumentality
Valance
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4 - 20
Expectancy Theory (continued)
 Expectancy
theory suggests that learning is
most likely to occur when employees believe:
 They
can learn the content of the program
(expectancy)
 Learning is linked to outcomes such as better
job performance, a salary increase, or peer
recognition (instrumentality)
 Employees value these outcomes
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4 - 21
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
Expectancy
Effort
Performance
Does Trainee Have
Ability to Learn?
Does Trainee Believe He
Can Learn?
X
Instrumentality
Performance
Outcome
Does Trainee Believe
Training Outcomes
Promised Will Be
Delivered?
X
Valance
Value of Outcome
= Effort
Are Outcomes Related to
Training Valued?
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4 - 22
Adult Learning Theory
Adult learning theory was developed out of a need for
a specific theory of how adults learn.
 It is based on several assumptions:

Adults have the need to know why they are learning
something.
 Adults have a need to be self-directed.
 Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning
situation.
 Adults enter into a learning experience with a problemcentered approach to learning.
 Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic
motivators.

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4 - 23
Implications of Adult Learning Theory for
Training:
Design Issue
Implications
Self – concept
Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction
Experience
Use learner experience as basis for examples and
applications
Readiness
Develop instruction based on learner’s interests and
competencies
Time perspective
Immediate application of content
Orientation to
learning
Problem – centered instead of subject – centered
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4 - 24
Information Processing Theory
These theories give more emphasis to the internal
processes that occur when training content is
learned and retained.
 This information can come from another person or
the learner’s own observation of the results of his
action.
 If the evaluation of the response is positive, this
provides reinforcement that the behavior is
desirable to be stored in long-term memory for use
in similar situations.

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4 - 25
The Learning Process
 This
material asks three questions:
What
are the physical and mental processes
involved in learning?
How does learning occur?
Do trainees have different learning styles?
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4 - 26
The Learning Process:
Mental and Physical Processes
Gratifying
Generalizing
Retrieval
Expectancy
Perception
LEARNING
Long –Term
Storage
Working
Storage
Semantic
Encoding
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4 - 27
The Learning Process:
Learning Styles

Diverger

 Abstract
 Concrete
experience
 Reflective observation

conceptualization
 Active experimentation
Assimilator
 Abstract
conceptualization
 Reflective observation
Converger

Accommodator
 Concrete
experience
 Active experimentation
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4 - 28
Implications of the Learning Process for
Instruction:
 Employees
need to know why they should
learn.
 Employees need meaningful training
content.
 Employees need opportunities to practice.
 Employees need to commit training content
to memory.
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4 - 29
Implications of the Learning Process for
Instruction: (continued)
 Employees
need feedback.
 Employees learn through:
Observation
Experience
Interacting
with others
 Employees
need the training program to be
properly coordinated and arranged.
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4 - 30
Training Objectives
Employees learn best when they understand the
objective of the training program.
 The objective refers to to the purpose and expected
outcome of training activities.
 Training objectives based on the training needs
analysis help employees understand why they need
the training.
 Objectives are useful for identifying the types of
training outcomes that should be measured to
evaluate a training program’s effectiveness.

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4 - 31
A training objective has three
components:
A
statement of what the employee is
expected to do (performance or outcome).
 A statement of the quality or level of
performance that is acceptable (criterion).
 A statement of the conditions under which
the trainee is expected to perform the
desired outcome (conditions).
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4 - 32
Training administration involves:
Communicating courses and programs to
employees
 Enrolling employees in courses and programs
 Preparing and processing any pre-training
materials such as readings or tests
 Preparing materials that will be used in instruction
 Arranging for the training facility and room
 Testing equipment that will be used in instruction

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4 - 33
Training administration involves:
(continued)
Having backup equipment should equipment fail
 Providing support during instruction
 Distributing evaluation materials
 Facilitating communications between trainer and
trainees during and after training
 Recording course completion in the trainees’
records or personnel files

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4 - 34
How Trainers Can Make the Training Site
and Instruction Conducive to Learning:
Creating A Learning
Setting
Preparation
Classroom
Management
Engaging Trainees
Managing Group
Dynamics
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4 - 35
Program Design
Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.