Language Learning Strategies in
Cooperative Open Learning:
Similarities and Individual Learner Preferences
Carmen M. Amerstorfer
SSU 2015
16th October, 2015
carmen.amerstorfer@aau.at
Contents
• Terminology & past research
• Research design & environment
• Research questions
• Methodology
• Comparison to Griffiths (2013)
• Qualitative data
• Results
Language Learning Strategies (LLSs)
• 40 years of research
• theoretical frameworks (e.g. Oxford 1990)
• practical applications (e.g. Griffiths 2013)
• LLSs are actions undertaken by learners to support learning
processes and/or to produce language output.
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Consciousness
Automaticity
Chains
Observability
Research on LLSs
Oxford (1990): Categorisation of LLSs into direct/indirect strategies
Oxford (1990): Strategy Inventory of Language Learning (SILL)
• 50 statements about LLSs rated on a 5-point scale
• To identify and quantify LLSs
• Learners’ self-perception
Griffiths (2013): Base/core/plus strategies
Research Design & Environment
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Case study
5 participants: female, 14-18 years, L1 German
2 low-level achievers; 3 high-level achievers
Different proficiency levels
• Mixed research methods
• CoOperative Open Learning (COOL)
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State-funded teaching concept since 1996
Dalton Plan (Parkhurst 1922)
2/3 regular lessons + 1/3 COOL lessons
Cooperation and self-direction
Research Questions
RQ 1: How does each participant’s self-perception of LLS use compare to Griffiths’s (2013)
findings?
RQ 2: What are individual preferences in the application of LLSs? Why do the participants
choose/not choose certain strategies?
RQ 3: How does each participant’s self-perception of LLS use compare to the strategies
applied during cooperative open EFL lessons?
RQ 4: Based on the individual participants’ qualitative data, what strategy types can be
classified according to their purposes?
RQ 5: Where are overlaps between different strategy types? Can the same strategy serve
more than one purpose for the same individual?
Methodology (1)
• Data collection phase 1: February 2014
• COOL lesson observations
• Initial meeting with individual participants
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SILL (Oxford 1990)
Initial interview
Stimulated recall interview
• Data collection phase 2: February-March 2014
• COOL lesson observations
• Stimulated recall interviews
• Data collection phase 3: February 2015
• Observations of regular ELT lessons
Methodology (2)
• Analysis of quantitative data (SILL profiles)
• Comparison with Griffiths’s (2013) base/core/plus strategies
• Integration of qualitative data into SILL items rated highest/lowest
• Computer-assisted analysis of qualitative data (Atlas.ti)
• Identification of strategic behaviour
• Interpretation of findings
Comparison to Griffiths (1)
• Quantitative analysis of participants’ rating of most and least
frequently used strategies (SILL)
• Strong agreement/disagreement with Griffiths’s findings
• Focus on base strategies (typical of low-level achievers; 9/50 items)
and plus strategies (typical of high-level achievers; 15/50 items)
Participant’s name
(achievement level)
Number of SILL items with Number of SILL items with
strong agreement
strong disagreement
Christina (low)
2
2
Sabrina (low)
0
4
Paula (high)
2
1
Stella (high)
7
1
Lisa (high)
3
3
Comparison to Griffiths (2)
Reflections
• SILL is outdated; strategies used by EFL learners today are missing.
• Griffiths’s core strategies (12/50 items) are not typically used by
either achievement group. What does a high/low rating for those
statements mean?
• 14/50 SILL statements are not included in Griffiths’s categories. What
does a high/low rating for those statements mean?
• Griffiths investigated highly frequently used LLSs based on
participants’ self-perception. How reliable is the data? What can
strategies with low ratings tell us? Are certain strategies avoided by
participants? If yes, why?
Qualitative data (1)
Christina (selection)
• does not use images to study vocabulary because she does not “need”
them. (3: I connect the sound of a new English word and an image or
picture of the word to help me remember the word.)
reason added
• writes new words and phrases in two columns (German/English), studies
the lists, and tests herself by covering up one side.
not in SILL
• plans at least four hours a week to study English. (43: I plan my schedule so
I will have enough time to study English.)
information added
• regularly evaluates her progress and strategy use by thinking “What do I
need to improve?” and “How can I learn this better?”
not in SILL
Qualitative data (2)
Stella (selection)
• says that flashcards are too much work and not worth the time and effort and
that studying English vocabulary is easy. (6: I use flashcards to remember new
English words.)
reason added
• makes connections to other subjects or other situations by thinking “Where have
I heard this before?” (1: I think of relationships between what I already know and
new things I learn in English.)
information added
• tries to find similarities with expressions in German and Spanish.
specific connection
• avoids word-for-word translations (22: I try not to translate word-for-word.)
and instead
• guesses from the context. (24: To understand unfamiliar English words, I make
guesses.)
link between two strategies
Qualitative data (3)
Reflections
• Inconsistencies between self-reported LLS use and some statements
made during interviews
• Acceptance of “just because” answers
• Inclusion of strategies that are not mentioned in the SILL
• Linkage between some strategies
• Reasons for (not) using LLSs
• Explanations of how to use LLSs
Results
• The participants’ SILL profiles partly support Griffiths’s (2013) findings
about base/core/plus strategies.
• The participants’ self-perception does not equal their actual LLS use.
• Some strategies are not included in the SILL.
• Self-perception is sometimes not reliable.
• LLSs are situated and influenced by
• learner differences and preferences,
• learning environments, learning situations, and learning modes,
• materials, and assignments.
• Learners should not be categorised but rather viewed holistically.
Expected outcomes
RQ 4: Based on the individual participants’ qualitative data, what
strategy types can be classified according to their purposes?
• Three types of strategies are used during COOL lessons:
• strategies related to language learning,
• strategies related to learner cooperation, and
• strategies related to the completion of tasks and assignments.
RQ 5: Where are overlaps between different strategy types? Can the
same strategy serve more than one purpose for the same individual?
• Strategy types can overlap
Thank you!
Questions?
Comments?
References
• Griffiths, Carol. 2013. The strategy factor in successful language
learning. Second language acquisition 67. Bristol: Multilingual
Matters.
• Oxford, Rebecca L. 1990. Language Learning Strategies: What every
teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
• Parkhurst, Helen. 1922. Education on the Dalton Plan: With an
introduction by T.P. Nunn, M.A.,D. Sc., Professor of Education,
University of London; and Contributions by Rosa Bassett, M.B.E., B.A.,
John Eades. New York: E.P. Dutton & Company.
• Griffiths’s study
• 348 international students aged 14-64 from 21 nationalities
• Approximately 1/3 male; 2/3 female
• 7 proficiency levels (from elementary to advanced)
• Terminology:
• Higher/lower level pupils; elementary/advanced pupils
• Strategy use compared to successful language learning
• Does successful language learning equal learner proficiency?
Grouping
A. Creating mental linkages
Associating/elaborating
I. Memory strategies
Placing new words into a context
Using imagery
Semantic mapping
B. Applying images and sounds
Using keywords
Representing sounds in memory
C. Reviewing well
Structured reviewing
Using physical response or sensation
D. Employing action
Using mechanical techniques
Repeating
Formally practicing with sounds and writing systems
A. Practicing
Recognizing and using formulas and patterns
Recombining
II. Cognitive strategies
DIRECT STRATEGIES
Practicing naturalistically
Getting the idea quickly
B. Receiving and sending messages
Using resources for receiving and sending messages
Reasoning deductively
Analyzing expressions
C. Analyzing and reasoning
Analyzing contrastively (across languages)
Translating
Transferring
Taking notes
D. Creating structure for input and output
Summarizing
Highlighting
Using linguistic clues
III. Compensation strategies
A. Guessing intelligently
Using other clues
Switching to the mother tongue
Getting help
Using mime or gesture
Avoiding communication partially or totally
B. Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing
Selecting the topic
Adjusting or approximating the message
Coining words
Using a circumlocution or synonym
Overviewing and linking with already known material
A. Centering your learning
Paying attention
I. Metacognitive strategies
Delaying speech production to focus on listening
Finding out about language learning
Organizing
Setting goals and objectives
B. Arranging and planning your learning
Identifying the purpose of a language task (purposeful listening/reading/speaking/writing)
Planning for a language task
Seeking practice opportunities
Self-monitoring
Self-evaluating
Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or meditation
A. Lowering your anxiety
Using music
II. Affective strategies
Using laughter
Making positive statements
B. Encouraging yourself
Taking risks wisely
Rewarding yourself
Listening to your body
Using a checklist
C. Taking your emotional temperature
Writing a language learning diary
Discussing your feelings with someone else
Asking for clarification or verification
III. Social strategies
INDIRECT STRATEGIES
C. Evaluating your learning
A. Asking question
Asking for correction
Cooperating with peers
B. Cooperating with others
Cooperating with proficient users of the new language
Developing cultural understanding
C. Empathizing with others
Becoming aware of others’ thoughts and feelings