CHAPTER SEVEN
PARTICIPATIVE
MANAGEMENT AND LEADING
TEAMS
Learning Objectives
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Understand when and why
participation should be used to
improve leadership effectiveness.
Explain the role of culture in the use
and success of participative leadership.
Specify the elements of effective
delegation.
Clarify the role of leadership in
self-managed teams.
Explain the principles of super- and
self-leadership.
The Continuum of
Participation
Organizational Structure
Traditional
organization
Occasional
use of teams
and employee
participation
Team-based
organization
High management
Total delegation
Control – No employee
High employee
Participation
Participation
Management Control
Criteria for Use of
Participation





When the task is complex and quality
is important
When follower commitment is needed
When there is time
When the leader and follower are
ready
When the leader and followers can
easily interact
Benefits of Participation




Development of
followers
Better decision on
complex tasks
Increase in
follower
motivation and
commitment
Opportunity to
empower
followers
Guidelines For
Good Delegation
Delegate pleasant and unpleasant
tasks


Clarify goals and expectations
Delegate authority along with
responsibility


Provide support

Monitor and provide feedback

Delegate to different followers
Excuses For Not
Delegating
“My followers are not ready.”
“They do not not have the skills.”
“I am uncomfortable delegating
my
tasks.”
 “I can do the job quicker myself.”
 “My followers are too busy.”
 “I am responsible for my followers
mistakes.”
 “My own manager may think I am
not working hard enough.”



TEAMS
Characteristics Of Teams






Members are fully committed to
common goals they develop
Members are mutually
accountable
to one another
Members trust one another
Collaborative culture
Shared leadership based on
facilitation
Synergy
Self-Managed Teams





Power to manage their own work
Members with different expertise
and experience
No outside manager and power to
implement team decisions
Coordination with other teams
Internal leadership based on
facilitation
Elements of Super
Leadership

Developing positive and
motivating thought
patterns

Personal goal setting

Observation and selfevaluation
Self-reinforcement control
and monitoring

Building Trust
Open
communication
Integrity
Rewarding
cooperation
Competence
And hard
work
Mutual respect
And support
Trust
Fairness and
equity
Team Leadership Roles
Continue to do
real work
Obtain needed
training
Clarify team
boundaries
Assess team
skills
SELFMANAGED
TEAM
Observe from a
distance
Counsel and
encourage
Help define
tasks and goals
Help develop
implementation
plan
Manage conflict
and relationships
Characteristics of a WellFunctioning, Effective Group
Relaxed, comfortable, informal
atmosphere
People express feelings
Task well understood
& ideas
& accepted
Consensus decision
making
Group aware of its
operation & function
Members listen well
& participate
Clear assignments made
& accepted
Conflict & disagreement center
around ideas or methods
Group Behavior
Norms of behavior - the standards that a work group
uses to evaluate the behavior of its members
Group cohesion - the “interpersonal glue” that
makes members of a group stick together
Social loafing - the failure of a group member to
contribute personal time, effort, thoughts, or other
resources to the group
Loss of individuality - a social process in which
individual group members lose self-awareness &
its accompanying sense of accountability,
inhibition, and responsibility for individual behavior
Group Formation
Formal groups - official
or assigned groups
gathered to perform
various tasks
 need ethnic, gender,
cultural, and
interpersonal diversity
 need professional and
geographical diversity
Informal groups unofficial or emergent
groups that evolve in
the work setting to
gratify a variety of
member needs not
met by formal groups
Stages of Group Formation
► Mutual
acceptance
 Focus is on the interpersonal
relations among the members
► Decision
making
 Focus is on decision making activities
related to tasks
► Motivation
& commitment
 Focus on self- and group-motivation,
execution, achievement
► Control
& sanctions
 Focus on effective, efficient unit
Joining Groups
► Security
► Status
► Self-Esteem
► Affiliation
► Power
► Goal
Achievement
Stages of Group Development
Prestage 1
Stage II
Storming
Stage IV
Performing
Stage I
Forming
Stage III
Norming
Stage V
Adjourning
Group Behavior Model
► External
Conditions Imposed on the Group
 Group Member Resources
 Group Structure
► Group
Process
 Group Task
► Performance
and Satisfaction
External Conditions Imposed on
the Group
► Organizational
Strategy
► Authority Structures
► Formal Regulations
► Organizational Resources
► Personnel Selections Process
► Organizational Culture
► Physical Work Setting
Group Leaders
► Department
Manager
► Supervisors
► Foreman
► Project
Leaders
► Task Force Head
► Chairperson
► Chief Executive Officer (CEO)
Group Roles
► Definition:
 Set of expected behavior pattern, attributed to
someone occupying a given position in a social
unit
► Role
Identity
► Role Perception
► Role Expectations
► Role Conflict
Groups Pass Through Task-Oriented and RelationshipOriented Stages. Some Groups Get Stuck at Certain
Stages and Become Dysfunctional
STAGE 1
Orientation
(Forming)
STAGE 2
Redefinition
(Storming)
Orientation
to Task
Emotional Response
to the Demands
of the Task
STAGE 3
Coordination
(Norming)
Open Exchange
of Relevant
Information
Development of
Group Cohesion
STAGE 4
Formalization
(Performing)
Emergence of
a Solution
Functional Roles
Emerge
STAGE 5
Termination
(Adjourning)
Testing and
Dependence
Dissolution
of Group
Intragroup
Conflict
Groups Change Their Ways of Working at Midstream,
Focusing More Clearly on Their Goal and Becoming
More Effective
PROJECT
STARTS
Perform
Original
Behaviors
0%
TRANSITION
Drop
Old
Behaviors
50%
TIME EXPENDED
PROJECT
DEADLINE
Perform
New, More
Effective
Behaviors
100%
Managers Should Consider Six Factors in
Choosing Group or Individual Decision Making
Factor
Group
Type of problem or task When diverse knowledge
and skills are required
Individual
When efficiency is desired
Acceptance of decision
When acceptance by group When acceptance is not
important
members is valued
Quality of the solution
When the input of several
group members can improve the solution
When a “best member”
can be identified
Characteristics of
individuals
When group members
have experienced working
together
When individuals cannot
collaborate
Managers Should Consider Six Factors in
Choosing Group or Individual Decision Making
(Cont.)
Factor
Group
Organizational
culture
When the
culture
supports
group problem
solving
Amount of time
available
Table 6-1b
When relatively
more time
is available
Individual
When culture is
competitive
When relatively little
time
is available
Cohesiveness & Productivity
► Highly
cohesive groups
are generally more
productive
► Cohesiveness reduces
tension and provides a
supportive environment
► Group norms play an
important role in
cohesiveness
Setting Standards
Group members help to develop, follow,
and enforce the rules, policies, and
procedures of the group. Such rules may
range from simple ones, like beginning on
time, to more complex policies, such as
procedures to arrive at consensus.
Mission
Values
Logistical Arrangements
Decision Making
Conflict
Group Cohesiveness
► Time
Spent Together
► Severity of Initiation
► Group Size
► External Threats
► Previous Successes
Groupthink
Irving Janis’ Model
 Antecedent
Conditions + Cohesiveness
 Groupthink Symptoms
Symptoms  Low
Probability of Success
 Groupthink
Groupthink Characteristics
► Powerful
Social Pressures
► Concurrence Seeking
► Dehumanizing Solutions
► Suppression of Deviant Thoughts
► Stress
Managers Should Avoid Groupthink in Making
Decisions With Groups
Symptom
Invulnerability
Rationalizatio
n
Morality
Stereotyping
Pressure
Description
Members feel they are safe and protected from
dangers, ostracism, or ineffective action.
Members ignore warnings by rationalizing their own or
others’ behavior.
Members believe their actions are inherently moral
and ethical.
Members view opponents as truly evil or stupid and
thus unworthy of or incompetent at negotiations
around differences in beliefs or positions.
Members pressure all individuals in the group to
conform to the group’s decision; they allow no
questioning or arguing of alternatives.
Managers Should Avoid Groupthink in Making
Decisions With Groups (Cont.)
Sympto
m
Description
Self-censorship Members do not question the group’s
decision.
Unanimity
“Mindguarding
”
Table 6-2b
Members perceive that everyone in the
group has the same
view.
Members may keep adverse information
from other members
that might ruin their perceptions of
consensus and the effective
decision.
Major Changes in Leadership Occur as Teams
Become Self-Directed
STAGE 5
Self-Directed Teams
STAGE 4
Tightly Formed Teams
STAGE 3
Leader-Centered Teams
STAGE 2
Sate of Confusion
STAGE 1
Start-Up
Mangers Can Use Three Points of Leverage to
Enhance Group Task Performance
Points of Leverage
Process Criteria
of Effectiveness
Group Structure
Organizational
Context
Coaching and
Consultation
Ample effort
Motivational structure of group task
Organizational
reward system
Remedying coordination problems
and building group
commitment
Sufficient knowledge and skill
Group composition
Organizational
education system
Remedying inappropriate “weighting” of member
inputs and fostering cross-training
Mangers Can Use Three Points of Leverage to
Enhance Group Task Performance (Cont.)
Points of Leverage
Process Criteria
of Effectiveness
Task-appropriate
performance
strategies
Table 6-3b
Group Structure
Group norms that
regulate member
behavior and foster
scanning and planning
Organizational
Context
Coaching and
Consultation
Organizational
information
system
Remedying implementation problems and fostering
creativity in strategy deployment
Diverse Teams Offer Both Advantages and
Disadvantages in the Workplace
Advantages
Disadvantages
•Increased number of perspectives
•Increased ambiguity
•Multiple interpretations likely
•Increased complexity
•Increased confusion
•Greater openness to new ideas
•Increased flexibility
•Increased creativity
•Improved problem solving
•Improved understanding of foreign
employees or customers
Table 6-4
•Increased mistrust
•Potential miscommunication
•Difficulty in reaching agreements
•Difficulty in reconciling diverse
perspectives
•Difficulty in reaching consensus
•Decreased group cohesion
Differences that Influence Perceptions, Which,
in Turn, Influence Intergoup Relations
ORIENTATION
•Goals
•Time
•Social
ATTITUDINAL SETS
•Competitive
•Cooperative
STATUS
DIFFERENCES
PERCEPTIONS
INTERGROUP
RELATIONS
Four Categories of Roles
► Group
Task Roles: roles which facilitate the
selection and definition of a common problem
and solution.
► Group Building and Maintenance: roles which
increase the functioning of the group as a
group.
► Individual Roles: roles which are oriented
toward the satisfaction of individual’s needs.
► Creative Roles: roles which involve using
creativity to identify possible solutions.
Group Task Roles
The Initiator- Contributor
► Suggests
or proposes new ideas
 may include the suggestion:
►for
►a
►a
►a
►a
a new group
new way to view a problem
new way to address a problem within the group
new procedure for the group
new way to organize the group
The Information Seeker
► Seeks
clarification of suggestions made in
terms of their factual adequacy, for
authoritative information and facets
pertinent to the problem being discussed.
The Opinion Seeker
► Asks
not primarily for the facts of the case
but for a clarification of the values pertinent
to what the group is undertaking or of
values involved in a suggestion made or in
alternative suggestions.
The Information Giver
► Offers
facts or generalizations which are
“authoritative” or relates his own experience
pertinently to the group problem.
The Opinion Giver
► States
his/her belief or opinion pertinently
to a suggestion made or to alternative
suggestions. The emphasis is on his/her
proposal of what should become the group’s
view of pertinent values, not primarily upon
relevant facts or information.
The Coordinator
► Shows
or clarifies the relationships among
various ideas and suggestions
►
Tries to pull ideas and suggestions
together
►
Tries to coordinate the activities of
various members
The Evaluator- Critic
► Subjects
the accomplishments of the group
to some standard or set of standards of
group functioning in the
context of the
group task.
►
My evaluate the “practicality”, “logic”,
“Facts”, or “procedures”
The Energizer
► Prods
►
the group to action or decision.
Attempts to stimulate or arouse the group
to greater or higher quality work.
The Recorder
► Writes
►
down suggestions.
Makes a record of group decisions (may be
down via memory).
► The
recorder role is the “group memory.”
Group Building and
Maintenance Roles
The Encourager
► Praises,
agrees with and accepts the
contributions of others.
► Indicates warmth, solidarity in attitude
toward others.
► Offers commendation and praise in various
ways and indicates acceptance of others,
The Harmonizer
► Mediates
the differences between members
► Attempts
to reconcile disagreements.
► Relieves
tension in conflict situations.
The Compromiser
► Operates
from within a conflict in which
his/her ideas or position is involved.
► May
offer compromise by yielding status,
admitting error, or by coming “halfway” in
meeting another.
The Gate-Keeper & Expediter
► Attempts
to keep communication open by
facilitating participation of others.
► Proposes
regulation of the flow of
communication.
The Follower
► Goes
along with the movement of the
group.
► Passively
► Serves
accepts the ideas of others.
as an audience for others in the
group as well as for group discussion and
decision.
Individual Roles
► Attempts
by individuals to satisfy personal needs.
► Numerous
types - from Sociology and Psychology.
The Monopolist
► Def:
One who chatters on incessantly due
to anxiety when silent.
► Effect:
Group gets concerned, then
frustrated and angry. May be afraid to
confront because then they must fill the
void.
Help-Rejecting Complainer
► Def.:
requests help than rejects; takes
problem in insolvability of problems;
blames authority, conflicted about
dependency feeling helpless and
distrusting.
► Effects:
seen as greedy and user of
group energy; members become bored,
confused, irritated and frustrated.
Self-Righteous Moralist
► Def.:
strong need to be right.
Demonstrates superiority via poise and
unconcerned about being liked. Deep
underlying shame.
► Effect:
mobilizes so much resentment
that may be forced out of the group.
Creative Group Roles
Idea Generator
► Look
for new ways to do things.
► Tend
to focus only on ideas and concepts.
► Are
result driven.
Designers
► See
the big picture.
► Provide
► Define
guidance and tools.
performance standards.
► Identify
resources needed to complete projects.
Promoters
► Visualize
end result.
► Optimistic.
► Promote
ideas and give momentum.
Managers Can Use This Checklist to Diagnose
the Roles Played by Each Team Member
TASK ORIENTED
MAINTENANCE
INDIVIDUAL
Agenda Setter
Encourager
Avoider
Analyzer
Follower
Blocker
Coordinator
Gatekeeper
Clown
Evaluator
Group Observer
Dominator
Information Giver
Harmonizer
Recognition Seeker
Information Seeker
Standard Setter
Other
Intuitor
Other
Other
Mature Group Characteristics
Purpose and Mission
► May be assigned or may emerge from the
group
► Group often questions, reexamines, &
modifies mission & purpose
► Mission converted into specific agenda, clear
goals, & a set of critical success factors
Mature Group Characteristics
Behavioral Norms - well-understood standards
of behavior within a group
Formal & written
Ground
rules
for
meetings
Informal but understood
Intra-group socializing
Dress codes
Leading Change:
Delphi Automotive
Systems
► Demand
for customization and
independence from GM
► Reinvented itself by changes in physical
plant and worker behavior
► Encouraged pride and ownership of work;
people at the center of the workflow
► Work stations and tools are completely
modular
► Each “cell” is independent and empowered
to do its own work as needed
Leadership In Action:
Dian Graves Owen
► People
thrive on responsibility
► Encourage autonomy and empower
employees
► Self-managed teams that are
flexible and use their expertise
► Employee participation and stock
ownership
The Leadership Challenge
► Focus
on guidelines for delegation
► Listen to feedback, even if unpleasant
► Tasks should be spread among
followers
► Delegation to different people provides
opportunity to develop followers and
observe performance
► Volunteers are highly valuable; they
have the motivation to do the task