Matakuliah : L0014 / PSIKOLOGI UMUM
Tahun
: 2007
PERSONALITY THEORIES AND ASSESSMENT
Pertemuan 20
PERSONALITY
• The sum of total of the typical ways of acting, thinking and feeling
that makes each person different from other people
• Typical : an individual’s personality is composed of all relatively
unchanging psychological characteristics
• Different : each person’s unique pattern of typical ways of acting,
thinking and feeling, sets him/her apart from each other person
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Personality Trait Theory
Gordon Allport
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GORDON ALLPORT (1)
1897 – 1967
• Opportunistic Functioning : One thing that motivates human beings
is the tendency to satisfy biological survival needs.
– Opportunistic functioning can be characterized as reactive, past-oriented,
and, of course, biological.
• Propriate functioning : Most human behavior is motivated by
something very different -- functioning in a manner expressive of
the self -- Most of what we do in life is a matter of being who we
are!
– Propriate functioning can be characterized as proactive, future-oriented, and
psychological.
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GORDON ALLPORT (2)
PHENOMENOLOGICAL
•
•
Propriate comes from the word Proprium = the self
The Self has 2 directions :
1.
2.
•
Phenomenological, i.e. the self as experienced:
Functionally
Phenomenological
–
–
the self is composed of the aspects of your experiencing that you see as most essential (as opposed to
incidental or accidental), warm (or “precious,” as opposed to emotionally cool), and central (as
opposed to peripheral).
The self has seven functions :
1. Sense of body
2. Self-identity
3. Self-esteem
4. Self-extension
5. Self-image
6. Rational coping
7. Propriate striving
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GORDON ALLPORT (3)
PHENOMENOLOGICAL
•
Sense of body develops in the first two years of life. We have one, we feel its closeness, its warmth. It has boundaries that pain and
injury, touch and movement, make us aware of. Allport had a favorite demonstration of this aspect of self: Imagine spitting saliva into a
cup -- and then drinking it down! What’s the problem? It’s the same stuff you swallow all day long! But, of course, it has gone out from
your bodily self and become, thereby, foreign to you.
•
Self-identity also develops in the first two years. There comes a point were we recognize ourselves as continuing, as having a past,
present, and future. We see ourselves as individual entities, separate and different from others. We even have a name! Will you be the
same person when you wake up tomorrow? Of course -- we take that continuity for granted.
•
Self-esteem develops between two and four years old. There also comes a time when we recognize that we have value, to others and to
ourselves. This is especially tied to a continuing development of our competencies. This, for Allport, is what the “anal” stage is really
all about!
•
Self-extension develops between four and six. Certain things, people, and events around us also come to be thought of as central and
warm, essential to my existence. “My” is very close to “me!” Some people define themselves in terms of their parents, spouse, or
children, their clan, gang, community, college, or nation. Some find their identity in activities: I’m a psychologist, a student, a
bricklayer. Some find identity in a place: my house, my hometown. When my child does something wrong, why do I feel guilty? If
someone scratches my car, why do I feel like they just punches me?
•
Self-image also develops between four and six. This is the “looking-glass self,” the me as others see me. This is the impression I make
on others, my “look,” my social esteem or status, including my sexual identity. It is the beginning of what others call conscience, ideal
self, and persona.
•
Rational coping is learned predominantly in the years from six till twelve. The child begins to develop his or her abilities to deal with
life’s problems rationally and effectively. This is analogous to Erikson’s “industry.”
•
Propriate striving doesn’t usually begin till after twelve years old. This is my self as goals, ideal, plans, vocations, callings, a sense of
direction, a sense of purpose. The culmination of propriate striving, according to Allport, is the ability to say that I am the proprietor of
my life -- i.e. the owner and operator!
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GORDON ALLPORT (4)
• Personal Traits or Personal Disposition : “a generalized neuropsychic structure
(peculiar to the individual), with the capacity to render many stimuli functionally
equivalent, and to initiate and guide consistent (equivalent) forms of adaptive and
stylistic behavior.”
• Traits/Dispositions are concrete, easily recognized, consistencies in our behaviors
and essentially unique
• Common traits or dispositions : ones that are a part of that culture, that everyone
in that culture recognizes and names
• Central traits : some traits are more closely tied to the proprium (one’s self) than
others. These are the building blocks of your personality. When you describe
someone, you are likely to use words that refer to these central traits
• Secondary traits : ones that aren’t quite so obvious, or so general, or so
consistent. Ex. Preferences, attitudes, situational traits
• Cardinal traits : the traits that some people have which practically define their
life
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GORDON ALLPORT (5)
FUNCTIONAL
•
Functional autonomy comes in two flavors:
1. Perseverative functional autonomy refers essentially to habits -- behaviors
that no longer serve their original purpose, but still continue.
–
–
You may have started smoking as a symbol of adolescent rebellion, for example,
but now you smoke because you can’t quit!
Social rituals such as saying “bless you” when someone sneezes had a reason
once upon a time (during the plague, a sneeze was a far more serious symptom
than it is today!), but now continues because it is seen as polite.
2. Propriate functional autonomy is something a bit more self-directed than
habits. Values are the usual example.
–
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Perhaps you were punished for being selfish when you were a child. That
doesn’t in any way detract from your well-known generosity today
GORDON ALLPORT (6)
• Personality
Organisasi dinamis di dalam individu yang terdiri dari sistem-sistem
psikofisik yang menentukan tingkah laku dan pikiran secara
karakteristik dalam menyesuaikan diri terhadap lingkungan
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The big 5 Personality Traits
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Neuroticism
Extraversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Psychoanalytic Theory
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Sigmund Freud
Carl Jung
Alfred Alder
Karen Horney
SIGMUND FREUD(1)
1856 – 1939
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
•
Psychoanalytic Theory : Freud’s Theory
that the origin of personality lies in the
balance among the id, the ego and the
superego
•
The conscious mind is what you are
aware of at any particular moment, your
present perceptions, memories,
thoughts, fantasies, feelings, what have
you.
•
Preconscious : "available memory:"
anything that can easily be made
conscious, the memories you are not at
the moment thinking about but can
readily bring to mind
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SIGMUND FREUD (2)
• the unconscious : It includes all the things that are not easily
available to awareness, including many things that have their
origins there, such as our drives or instincts, and things that are put
there because we can't bear to look at them, such as the memories
and emotions associated with trauma.
• the unconscious is the source of our motivations
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SIGMUND FREUD (3)
The id, the ego, and the superego
• Id (the Selfish Beast)
– instincts or drives or wishes
– This translation from need to wish is called the primary process
– The id works in keeping with the pleasure principle, which can be understood as a
demand to take care of needs immediately
• Ego (The Executive of Personality)
– Around this little bit of consciousness, during the first year of a child's life, some of
the "it" becomes "I," some of the id becomes ego.
– The ego relates the organism to reality by means of its consciousness, and it searches
for objects to satisfy the wishes that id creates to represent the organisms needs.
This problem-solving activity is called the secondary process.
– The ego, unlike the id, functions according to the reality principle, which says "take
care of a need as soon as an appropriate object is found." It represents reality and, to
a considerable extent, reason
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SIGMUND FREUD (4)
The id, the ego, and the superego
• Superego (The Conscience and Ego ideal)
– There are two aspects to the superego:
• Conscience, which is an internalization of punishments and warnings.
• Ego ideal : It derives from rewards and positive models presented to the child.
– The conscience and ego ideal communicate their requirements to the ego
with feelings like pride, shame, and guilt.
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SIGMUND FREUD (5)
LIFE INSTINCT AND DEATH INSTINCT
• Life instincts. These instincts perpetuate
– (a) the life of the individual, by motivating him or her to seek food and water
– (b) the life of the species, by motivating him or her to have sex.
– The motivational energy of these life instincts, the "oomph" that powers our psyches,
he called libido, from the Latin word for "I desire."
• Death instinct. He began to believe that every person has an unconscious wish to
die.
– has some basis in experience: Life can be a painful and exhausting process. There is
easily, for the great majority of people in the world, more pain than pleasure in life -Death promises release from the struggle.
– Freud referred to a nirvana principle. Nirvana is a Buddhist idea, often translated as
heaven, but actually meaning "blowing out," as in the blowing out of a candle. It
refers to non-existence, nothingness, the void, which is the goal of all life in Buddhist
philosophy.
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SIGMUND FREUD (6)
ANXIETY
•
•
Anxiety : The ego -- the "I" -- sits at the center of some pretty powerful forces: reality;
society, as represented by the superego; biology, as represented by the id. When these
make conflicting demands upon the poor ego, it is understandable if it -- if you -- feel
threatened, fell overwhelmed, feel as if it were about to collapse under the weight of it all
Freud mentions three different kind of anxieties:
1. Realistic anxiety = fear
–
Ex. if I throw you into a pit of poisonous snakes, you might experience realistic anxiety.
2. Moral anxiety
–
what we feel when the threat comes not from the outer, physical world, but from the internalized social
world of the superego. It is, in fact, just another word for feelings like shame and guilt and the fear of
punishment.
3. Neurotic anxiety
–
–
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The fear of being overwhelmed by impulses from the id. If you have ever felt like you were about to
"lose it," lose control, your temper, your rationality, or even your mind, you have felt neurotic anxiety.
Neurotic is actually the Latin word for nervous, so this is nervous anxiety. It is this kind of anxiety that
intrigued Freud most, and we usually just call it anxiety, plain and simple.
SIGMUND FREUD (7)
DEFENSE MECHANISM
• the ego deals with the demands of reality, the id, and the superego
as best as it can. But when the anxiety becomes overwhelming, the
ego must defend itself. It does so by unconsciously blocking the
impulses or distorting them into a more acceptable, less
threatening form. The techniques are called the ego defense
mechanisms
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• Denial involves blocking external events from awareness. If some
situation is just too much to handle, the person just refuses to
experience it
• Repression, which Anna Freud also called "motivated forgetting," is
just that: not being able to recall a threatening situation, person, or
event
• Isolation (sometimes called intellectualization) involves stripping
the emotion from a difficult memory or threatening impulse
• Displacement is the redirection of an impulse onto a substitute
target
• Projection, which Anna Freud also called displacement outward, is
almost the complete opposite of turning against the self. It involves
the tendency to see your own unacceptable desires in other people
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• Reaction formation, which Anna Freud called "believing the
opposite," is changing an unacceptable impulse into its opposite
• Undoing involves "magical" gestures or rituals that are meant to
cancel out unpleasant thoughts or feelings after they've already
occurred
• Introjection, sometimes called identification, involves taking into
your own personality characteristics of someone else, because
doing so solves some emotional difficulty
• Identification with the aggressor is a version of introjection that
focuses on the adoption, not of general or positive traits, but of
negative or feared traits
• Regression is a movement back in psychological time when one is
faced with stress
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• Rationalization is the cognitive distortion of "the facts" to make an
event or an impulse less threatening
• Sublimation is the transforming of an unacceptable impulse,
whether it be sex, anger, fear, or whatever, into a socially
acceptable, even productive form
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SIGMUND FREUD (8)
THE STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
•
The oral stage (Birth – 1 year) The focus of pleasure is, of course, the mouth. Sucking and
biting are favorite activities.
•
The anal stage (1 to 3 years) The focus of pleasure is the anus. Holding it in and letting it
go are greatly enjoyed.
•
The phallic stage (3 to 6 years) The focus of pleasure is the genitalia. Masturbation is
common.
•
The latent stage (6 to 11 years old) During this stage, Freud believed that the sexual
impulse was suppressed in the service of learning.
•
The genital stage (11 years on) , and represents the resurgence of the sex drive in
adolescence, and the more specific focusing of pleasure in sexual intercourse. Freud felt
that masturbation, oral sex, homosexuality, and many other things we find acceptable in
adulthood today, were immature.
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•
The Oedipal crisis - phallic stage
–
–
–
–
–
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named after the ancient Greek story of king Oedipus, who inadvertently killed his father and
married his mother.
The first love-object for all of us is our mother. We want her attention, we want her affection, we
want her caresses, we want her, in a broadly sexual way. The young boy, however, has a rival for
his mother's charms: his father! His father is bigger, stronger, smarter, and he gets to sleep with
mother, while junior pines away in his lonely little bed. Dad is the enemy.
About the time the little boy recognizes this archetypal situation, he has become aware of some
of the more subtle differences between boys and girls, the ones other than hair length and
clothing styles. From his naive perspective, the difference is that he has a penis, and girls do not.
At this point in life, it seems to the child that having something is infinitely better than not
having something, and so he is pleased with this state of affairs.
But the question arises: where is the girl's penis? Perhaps she has lost it somehow. Perhaps it
was cut off. Perhaps this could happen to him! This is the beginning of castration anxiety, a slight
misnomer for the fear of losing one's penis because his father will punish his sexual desire for his
mother
The boy, recognizing his father's superiority and fearing for his penis, engages some of his ego
defenses: He displaces his sexual impulses from his mother to girls and, later, women; And he
identifies with the aggressor, dad, and attempts to become more and more like him, that is to
say, a man. After a few years of latency, he enters adolescence and the world of mature
heterosexuality.
• Penis envy/Electra Complex – phallic stage
– The young girl has noticed the difference between boys and girls and feels
that she, somehow, doesn't measure up. She would like to have one, too, and
all the power associated with it. At very least, she would like a penis
substitute, such as a baby. As every child knows, you need a father as well as
a mother to have a baby, so the young girl sets her sights on dad.
– Dad, of course, is already taken. The young girl displaces from him to boys
and men, and identifies with mom, the woman who got the man she really
wanted.
– Note that one thing is missing here: The girl does not suffer from the
powerful motivation of castration anxiety, since she cannot lose what she
doesn't have. Freud felt that the lack of this great fear accounts for fact (as
he saw it) that women were both less firmly heterosexual than men and
somewhat less morally-inclined.
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CARL JUNG (1)
1875 – 1961
• Jung's theory divides the psyche into three parts
– The ego : the conscious mind
– The personal unconscious, which includes anything which is not presently conscious,
but can be. It includes both memories that are easily brought to mind and those that
have been suppressed for some reason
– The collective unconscious = "psychic inheritance." It is the reservoir of our
experiences as a species, a kind of knowledge we are all born with. And yet we can
never be directly conscious of it. It influences all of our experiences and behaviors,
most especially the emotional ones, but we only know about it indirectly, by looking at
those influences.
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CARL JUNG (2)
• The contents of the collective unconscious are called archetypes
• The archetype has no form of its own, but it acts as an "organizing principle" on
the things we see or do
The Shadow
– Sex and the life instincts in general are, of course, represented somewhere in Jung's
system.
– It derives from our prehuman, animal past, when our concerns were limited to survival
and reproduction, and when we weren't self-conscious.
The persona represents your public image
The Anima and Animus
– The anima is the female aspect present in the collective unconscious of men, and the
animus is the male aspect present in the collective unconscious of women
– The anima or animus is the archetype through which you communicate with the
collective unconscious generally, and it is important to get into touch with it. It is also
the archetype that is responsible for much of our love life: We are, as an ancient
Greek myth suggests, always looking for our other half, the half that the Gods took
from us, in members of the opposite sex. When we fall in love at first sight, then we
have found someone that "fills" our anima or animus archetype particularly well!
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ALFRED ALDER (1)
1870 - 1937
Founder of the school of Individual psychology
1. Feelings of inferiority
The feeling that result from children being less powerful than adults that must
be overcome during the development of the healthy personality
2. Believe that people’s live are governed by their goals  cognitive
ego function
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KAREN HORNEY (1)
1885 - 1952
• Call herself as Freudian because she agreed that unconscious
conflict were the source of human misery and maladjustment
• The conflict developed only as a result of inadequate child rearing
experience
– The child loses confidence in parental love – the child becomes anxiously
insecure – the anxious insecure is the source of all conflicts
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KAREN HORNEY (2)
Theory of Neurosis
• believed neurosis to be a continuous process -- with neuroses
commonly occurring sporadically in one's lifetime.
• ten patterns of neurotic needs : needs somewhat to correspond
with what she believed were individuals' neuroses
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KAREN HORNEY (3)
Moving Toward People
1. The need for affection and approval; pleasing others and being liked by them.
2. The need for a partner; one whom they can love and who will solve all problems.
3. The need to restrict life practices to within narrow borders; to live as inconspicuous a life as possible.
Moving Against People
4. The need for power; the ability to bend wills and achieve control over others -- while most persons seek strength, the
neurotic may be desperate for it.
5. The need to exploit others; to get the better of them. To become manipulative, fostering the belief that people are there
simply to be used.
6. The need for social recognition; prestige and limelight.
•7. The need for personal admiration; for both inner and outer qualities -- to be valued.
8. The need for personal achievement; though virtually all persons wish to make achievements, as with No. 4, the neurotic
may be desperate for achievement.
Moving Away from People
9. The need for self sufficiency and independence; while most desire some autonomy, the neurotic may simply wish to
discard other individuals entirely.
10. Lastly, the need for perfection; while many are driven to perfect their lives in the form of well being, the neurotic may
display a fear of being slightly flawed.
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SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Albert Bandura
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ALBERT BANDURA (1)
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
•
•
The viewpoint that the most important parts of our behavior are
learned from other persons in society – family, friends and culture
Personality :
1. People as playing an active role in determining their own actions, rather
than being passively acted upon by the learning environment
2. The important of cognition in personality
•
Reciprocal determination
–
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Not only is a person’s behavior learned, but the social learning environment
is altered by the person’s behavior
ALBERT BANDURA (2)
Role of cognition in personality
• Self – Efficacy
– The perception that one capable of doing what is necessary to reach one’s
goals – both in the sense of knowing
• Self Regulation
– The process of cognitively reinforcing and punishing our own behavior,
depending on whether it meets our personal standards
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ALBERT BANDURA (3)
• Situationism and Interactionism
– Situationism : the view that behavior is not consistent but is strongly
influenced by other different situations
– Person x situation interactionism : the view that behavior is influenced by a
combination of the characteristic of both the person and the situation
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Humanistic Theory
The psychological view that human beings possess an innate tendency to improve and to
determine their lives through the decisions they make
1. Maslow
2. Rogers
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MASLOW
1908 - 1970
•
What is self actualization person like ?
1.
Has reached a high level of moral
development and is more concerned about
the welfare of others than self.
Committed to some cause or task than
working for fame or money
2. Are open and honest and have courage to
act on their convictions, even if it means
being unpopular
3. Have accurate view of people and life,
positive about life
4. Life is always challenging and fresh for
them. Spontaneous and natural in their
action and feeling.
•
Peak experiences : intensely moving
experiences in which the individual feels a
sense of unity with the world
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs
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CARL ROGERS
1902 – 1987
HUMANISTIC THE0RY
• the actualizing tendency : the built-in motivation present in every
life-form to develop its potentials to the fullest extent possible
• Subjective reality
Each person’s unique perception of reality that plays a key role in organizing our
personalities
• Self
The person one thinks one is
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Carl Rogers (2)
• Self Concept . . . the organized consistent conceptual gestalt
composed of perceptions of the characteristics of 'I' or 'me' and the
perceptions of the relationships of the 'I' or 'me' to others and to
various aspects of life, together with the values attached to these
perceptions. It is a gestalt which is available to awareness though
not necessarily in awareness. It is a fluid and changing gestalt, a
process, but at any given moment it is a specific entity. (Rogers,
1959 [5])
 our subjective perception of who we are and what we are like
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Carl Rogers (3)
• Ideal self
The person wishes one were
• Symbolization
The process of representing experience, thoughts or feelings in mental symbols
of which we are aware
• Conditions of worth
The standards used by others or ourselves in judging our worth
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Personality Assessment
•
•
•
•
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Interview and Observational Methods
Projective personality test
Objective Personality test
Evaluation of Personality test