English II Study Guide 1st Semester
Objective 1a: The student will analyze the relationships of pairs of words in analogical
statements (e.g., synonyms and antonyms) and infer word meanings from these
relationships. (DOK 2)
 An analogy is a comparison between two things that are similar in some way. The
analogy suggests that if they are alike in certain respects, they will probably be alike in
other ways as well. Analogies are often used to explain, make something easier to
understand, or emphasize a point.
 Synonyms – words that have similar meanings (motivate is to inspire as bliss is to delight)
 Antonyms – words that have opposite meanings (exciting is to dull as hero is to villain)
 A simile makes an indirect comparison between two different things using linking words
such as: like, as, than, resembles, etc.
 A metaphor makes a comparison between two different things without using any linking
words. One thing is spoken of as if it actually was something else.
 Context is the situation or circumstance in which something exists or an event occurs. It
is the background information a reader needs to know.
 Context Clues are information in a passage or sentence that helps the reader to determine
the meaning of unfamiliar words or phrases.
Example Question:
Read these statements.
Statement 1
The onerous summer heat made practice difficult for the football team.
Statement 2
Though hammering was onerous work, the carpenter took solace in the fact that this arduous
job was almost complete.
Which analogical statement below correctly illustrates the relationship between onerous
and arduous?
A
B
C
D
Onerous is to arduous as considerate is to pensive.
Onerous is to arduous as adequate is to acceptable.
Onerous is to arduous as eager is to disinterested.
Onerous is to arduous as patient is to hurried.
Objective 1b: The student will analyze author’s (or authors)’ uses of figurative language
(e.g., metaphor, simile, hyperbole, personification, oxymoron, idiom, etc.) in multiple
texts in the creation of setting, tone, atmosphere, characterization, and mood. (DOK 3)
 Figurative language is language that uses the imagination to compare one thing to
something that is very different. Figurative language is not literal or factual; it is language
that is representative and suggests an imaginative truth.
 An allusion uses a reference to a person, place, thing, or event from literature, history,
religion, mythology, science, sports, or the arts to describe something. In order for an
allusion to be effective, the reader must be familiar with what is being referenced.
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A hyperbole is language that uses overstatement or exaggeration to communicate
emotion or to create a comic effect. An exaggeration describes something as larger or
wildly different than it actually is.
Idiom is a colorful expression whose meaning cannot be understood from the actual
word meanings (for example, “to have somebody in stitches” or “to let the cat out of the
bag”). It is a way of using particular language and expressions that is understood by its
native speakers because of familiarity with its usage.
A metaphor makes a comparison between two different things without using any linking
words. One thing is spoken of as if it actually was something else.
Oxymoron is language in which contrasting ideas are combined to create a particular effect.
Personification is language that gives human characteristics to non-human things or
abstract ideas. By using personification, the writer makes the reader look at the object or
idea in a different way.
A simile makes an indirect comparison between two different things using linking words
such as: like, as, than, resembles, etc.
Imagery is the representation in language of sensory experience: what can be seen,
heard, touched, tasted, and smelled. It also includes descriptions of experiences that can
be felt internally. Imagery helps us to form a picture or to visualize something.
Symbolism is when a writer uses a person, place, thing, or event to represent something
more abstract such as an emotion or idea.
Atmosphere is the main environment or feeling associated with a specific place or time.
Mood is feeling or the main emotion in a work.
Tone is the author’s attitude or feelings toward a subject, character, or situation. It is the overall
feeling or effect created by a writer’s attitude, use of words, and sentence structure.
Setting is the place where the action happens and the time when they occur.
Characterization is the method the author uses to reveal a character’s personality. It is
the way in which the reader learns about a character in a story. The two major methods
of characterization are direct and indirect.
Example Question:
Read these two paragraphs.
Paragraph from the passage (lines 1–7)
Even the most stalwart outdoorsperson might feel a chill when encountering a bat swooping
around the yard at dusk. Perhaps it’s a natural reaction to fear flying things we can’t see well,
or maybe we’re conditioned by lore and legend to abhor these furry fliers. In either case, bats
share the floor with spiders when it comes to inspiring unwarranted fear.
Paragraph from an article
The night is calm and quiet. Then, one bat darts out of the cavern flying in a circular motion
as it ascends into the night sky. Eventually, a few others find their way to the opening of the
cave and follow in its path. Then suddenly, the silence of the night is shattered with the
flutter of thousands and thousands of Mexican Freetail Bats. As they rush through the
opening, they are no longer bats. They become a black cyclone circling in the air.
How does the use of figurative language by these authors contribute to the mood?
A Both authors use symbolism as they represent the speed and agility of the bats.
B Both authors use alliteration as they reveal that bats can be startling to humans.
C Both authors use oxymoron to show the contrast between the size of bats and their
great abilities.
D Both authors use hyperbole to exaggerate the qualities and impact bats have on their
environment.
Objective 1c: The student will analyze word choice and diction, including formal and
informal language, to determine the author’s purpose. (DOK 3)
Example Question:
Read these excerpts.
Excerpt from an early draft of “Thoughts on High School”
The first year of high school passed quickly by,
a mixture of people and places
and classes.
“What do you want to be when you graduate?”
The question began to fade,
lost in the hallways,
hushed by the football games,
surpassed by the importance of now.
Revised excerpt from “Thoughts on High School” (lines 22–29)
The first year of high school sailed by,
a beautiful muddle of friends and fun
and knowledge.
“What do you want to be when you graduate?”
The question began to fade,
lost in the hurry of the hallways,
drowned by the cheers at the football games,
eclipsed by the importance of now.
How does the diction in the revised excerpt affect the author’s purpose?
F
G
H
J
The diction in the revised excerpt reinforces the theme of change.
The diction in the revised excerpt clarifies the speaker’s character.
The diction in the revised excerpt creates a vivid image of a high school setting.
The diction in the revised excerpt emphasizes the speaker’s feelings of uncertainty.
Objective 1d: The student will analyze text to determine how the author’s (or authors’)
use of connotative words reveals and/or affects the purpose of the text. (DOK 3)
 Diction is the author’s choice of words. When authors write, they choose their words
very carefully.
 Author’s purpose is the writer’s reason for creating a work or using particular language.
It is the author’s goal or the effect he/she wants to achieve.
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o The author has a purpose for using specific language. Each person has a particular
perspective or view point. When authors write, they want readers to see the topic
from their perspective. The author’s purpose for using particular words in a piece of
writing may be to emphasize a point; make the writing more personal, objective,
formal, or informal; create a specific mood; reveal the author’s tone or attitude; or
obtain a particular emotional reaction from the reader.
Formal language states the meaning exactly and uses correct Standard English.
(Example: Please keep silent about this situation).
Informal language often uses expressions, dialect, or figurative language to express an
idea. (Example: Don’t let the cat out of the bag.)
Connotation is the associations surrounding a word that are not part of its literal
dictionary meaning (Denotation is the literal or dictionary meaning of a word).
Example Question:
Read these excerpts.
Excerpt from an early draft of “Legacies”
So, let us make a promise—yes, let us, you and I,
Swear only goodness to remain when out we fly.
Since only we choose what we leave, leave genial dreams
Of fanciful, creative things that stir the mind to wonder.
For all of us leave memories to those who come hereafter.
Excerpt from “Legacies” (lines 21–25)
So, let us make a vow—yes, let us, you and I,
Swear only goodness to remain when out we fly.
Since only we choose what we leave, leave genial dreams
Of fanciful, creative things that stir the mind to wonder.
For all of us leave memories to those who come hereafter.
Justify the author’s decision to make the revision by selecting the statement below that
accurately evaluates the effect of the connotation of the word vow on the author’s purpose.
F
The connotation of the word reinforces the speaker’s excitement about creating a great
work.
G
The connotation of the word stresses the seriousness of the commitment that is being
proposed.
H
The connotation of the word emphasizes the importance of maintaining a sense of
creativity and wonder.
J
The connotation of the word conveys the speaker’s desperation to leave something
behind for future generations.
Objective 2a: The student will apply understanding of text features (e.g., introduction,
foreword, bibliography, prologue, charts, graphics, footnotes, preface, afterword,
sidebars, etc.) to verify, support, or clarify meaning. (DOK 2)
Table of Content is a list of divisions (chapters or articles)
and the page number on which they start.
Heading or Sub-heading is the title of a piece of work or a
section, chapter or page. Headings or sub-headings divide or
categorize the subject matter of a piece of writing.
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Preface is an introductory section at the beginning of a book or speech that
comments on aspects of the text such as the writer’s intentions; a preface
introduces the text.
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Foreword is an introductory note, essay, or chapter in a book that is often
written by somebody other than the author.
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Prologue is an introductory passage or speech before the main action of a novel,
play, or long poem; a preliminary event that leads to something more important.
Sidebars
provide
supplementary
information
that is printed
alongside a
featured story
or text.
Introduction is the
explanatory section at the
beginning of a piece of writing
that sets the scene, introduces
the subject, or summarizes the
main idea of the writing.
Charts are
diagrams or
tables
displaying
information.
Graphics are
visual
illustrations or
photographs.
Example Question:
Afterword is the end section or short concluding section added at the end of a
literary work, which may be either an epilogue (short chapter or section at the end of
a literary work, sometimes detailing the fate of the characters) or a commentary of
some kind.
Bibliography is a list of books or articles that were consulted or that are about a
particular subject; the bibliography appears at the end of a book or other text.
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Footnote is an additional detail or comment that is added at the bottom of a page to
give further information about something mentioned in the text above.
Example Question:
The author of “On the Road” is proposing the addition of this sidebar near line 33
of the passage.
Recent Changes
In recent years old traffic lights have been replaced with signals made from LEDs, or light
emitting diodes. Hundreds of these tiny lights are grouped together to form the three colors
represented on traffic lights. Many cities in the United States are switching to LED traffic lights
because they are brighter, last longer, and use less energy than previous models.
How will the inclusion of the sidebar support the meaning of the passage?
A
B
C
D
By emphasizing the importance of modern technology to traffic rules and regulations
By informing the reader about a new development in the history of traffic signals
By demonstrating the continued necessity of traffic lights
By clarifying the function and appearance of traffic lights
Objective 2c: The student will make inferences based on textual evidence of details,
organization, and language to predict, draw conclusions, or determine author’s purpose.
(DOK 3)
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An inference is a conclusion drawn from evidence or reasoning.
o To make inferences, the reader combines the text information with his or her own
experiences in order to create meaning that is not directly stated in the text.
o When we infer, we draw conclusions, form interpretations, and make predictions.
Example Question:
Read these excerpts.
Excerpt from an early draft of “Thoughts on High School”
I blinked, and high school was over.
I stood at the edge of the stage,
ready to walk across and receive the diploma
that would mark my graduation.
Revised excerpt from “Thoughts on High School” (lines 43–48)
I blinked, and high school was over.
I stood at the edge of the stage,
ready to walk across and receive the diploma
that would say to everyone,
“He has learned. He has lived.
He has made his way through the sea of choices.”
What can the reader infer about how the details and language in the revised excerpt
support the author’s purpose?
F The details and language in the revised excerpt identify important lessons from the
speaker’s high school experience.
G The details and language in the revised excerpt clarify the difficulties the speaker
faced during high school.
H The details and language in the revised excerpt emphasize changes that the speaker
has undergone.
J The details and language in the revised excerpt illustrate the speaker’s relief upon
graduating.
Objective 2d: The student will analyze or evaluate texts to synthesize responses for
summary, précis, explication, etc. (DOK 3)
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A summary is a restatement of the main idea and important points of the original text.
Readers must delete information, substitute some information, and keep some
information. Summaries are concise without losing the most important information.
o Steps for writing a summary:
1. Identify the important ideas.
2. Condense the supporting details.
3. Delete less important information and redundant material.
4. Substitute precise language for lists and descriptions.
5. Compose a topic sentence.
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Précis: A short summary of the essential ideas of a longer composition; the basic thought
of a passage is reproduced in miniature, retaining the mood and tone of the original. No
interpretation or comment should be interjected. It must possess clear, emphatic diction
and effective sentence construction. Its unity and coherence should be emphasized
through smooth, unobtrusive transitions. The summary must be intelligible to a reader
who has not seen the original.
o Steps for writing a précis:
1. Note the author’s purpose, tone, and organization of the text.
2. Identify the important ideas.
3. Delete less important information, including figurative language, loaded
language, and “flowery” or superfluous language.
4. Compose a summary that is no more than 1/3 the length of the passage(s).
5. Double check to see that the précis has kept the author’s purpose, tone, and
organization of the text.
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Explication: An explication is a type of summary that is very brief and precise.
Explications also keep the argument of the passage or passages.
o Steps for writing an explication:
1. Make sure to note the author’s purpose and the theme of the passage.
2. Identify the important ideas and arguments.
3. Delete less important information.
4. Create a summary that is one to two sentences in length.
5. Double check to make sure that the explication captures the main idea,
argument, or theme of the passage.
Example Question:
Read these excerpts from “Legacies.”
Excerpt 1 (lines 1–5)
The memories we have of those who came before
Help shape us into who we are, make us bold or hesitant,
Render us strong or weak, lend cowardice or courage
To stride onto the road of life or linger alongside.
Yet all of us leave memories for those who come hereafter.
Excerpt 2 (lines 11–15)
Not all of us work wondrous works, but all of us leave
Works of art, some brittle, some intense.
To those whose infant clothes still lie waiting in a drawer
Leave wonder or leave scorn, leave joy or prickly thorns.
Yes, all of us leave memories to those who come hereafter.
Which is an accurate and appropriate explication of the two excerpts?
A Everyone who lives leaves behind pieces of artwork, however simple, that will be
admired and enjoyed by later generations.
B Not all of the ideas that are inherited from previous generations are good ones.
Individuals must, therefore, think critically about which of these ideas should be allowed
to take hold and have the greatest effect.
C All people, even those who have not yet been born, are shaped by the thoughts and
memories of previous generations and will contribute in some way, however small, to the
experiences that shape future lives.
D Every individual should work to leave a lasting memory for future generations, no
matter how small or unimportant those works may seem. Those who fail to create these
memories or to contribute to society will be forgotten.
Objective 2e: The student will analyze (e.g., interpret, compare, contrast, evaluate,
etc.) literary elements in multiple texts from a variety of genres and media for their effect
on meaning. (DOK 3)
1) Literary Text and Literary Non-fiction -Short stories, novels, biographies,
autobiographies, narrative essays (e.g., character, setting, plot, conflict, theme,
mood, tone, point of view, allusion, figurative language, stylistic devices, dramatic
irony, symbolism, imagery, language/word choice, foreshadowing, flashback, etc.)
-Poetry (e.g., structure, language, theme, setting, persona, conflict, dramatic
irony, symbolism, allusion, figurative language, stylistic devices, imagery,
language/word choice, etc.)
-Drama (e.g., character, structure, techniques [e.g., soliloquy], mood, tone,
conflict, imagery, allusion, figurative language, stylistic devices, dramatic irony,
language/word choice, foreshadowing, etc.)
NOTE: Figurative language includes simile, metaphor, personification,
hyperbole, symbolism, imagery, irony, oxymoron, paradox, etc. Stylistic
devices include alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia, rhyme, rhythm,
repetition, etc. Both are to be used with appropriate (or specific)
mode/audience.
2) Informational Texts -Exposition, argumentation (e.g., language, point of view,
structure, irony, symbolism, allusion, figurative language, imagery, language/word
choice, etc.)
 Fiction is a type of literature drawn from the imagination of the author that tells about
imaginary characters and events. Fictional works are primarily designed to entertain.
o Novel: a long narrative fictional work that is usually divided into chapters. Novels
usually have well-developed plots and characters.
o Short Story: a short narrative fictional work that is carefully crafted and tightly
constructed. Short stories usually deal with one effect or theme.
o Poem: a composition that is characterized by the use of condensed language and
literary techniques (figurative language and stylistic devices) that appeal to the
reader’s imagination and emotion.
o Play or Drama: a composition or production written to be performed by actors on
stage, television, or radio. Plays contain scripts of dialogue and information about
scene design and action. Plays are often divided into acts and scenes.
 Non-fiction writing deals with real people, things, events, and places. Non-fiction texts
are primarily designed to inform, explain, argue/persuade, or describe.
o Exposition is a form of writing; the purpose of expository writing is to set forth
information or explain.
o Argumentation is writing that attempts to influences the reader’s point of view or
beliefs through appeals or arguments.
o Essay and article: a form of non-fiction writing that focuses on a specific topic.
Essays and articles may be written to inform, explain, argue/persuade, or describe.
o Biography: an account of somebody’s life, for example, in the form of a book,
movie, or documentary, written or produced by another person.
o Autobiography: the story of the writer’s life. We learn the details of the author’s life
when we read an autobiography. The information recounted in an autobiography may
be faulty because facts may be distorted depending on perception or memory.
o Personal Narrative: writing that tells a story about a particular event in the author’s
life. Personal narratives focus on a specific event and use sensory details to involve
the reader in the sequence of events.
o Diary: a personal record of events in a person’s life arranged by date, which often
includes personal thoughts, feelings and observations.
 Alliteration is the repetition of the similar consonant sounds in words that are close
together to create a particular effect. (i.e. The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,)
 Assonance is the repetition of similar vowel sounds followed by different consonant
sounds in words that are close together to create a particular effect. (i.e. And so all the
night-tide, I lie down by the side,)
 Antagonist is a person or thing working against the main character.
 Atmosphere is the main environment or feeling associated with a specific place or time.
 Author’s purpose is the writer’s reason for creating a work or using particular language.
It is the author’s goal or the effect he/she wants to achieve.
 Characterization is the method the author uses to reveal a character’s personality. It is
the way in which the reader learns about a character in a story. The two major methods
of characterization are direct and indirect.
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o When using direct characterization, a writer states the characters’ traits, actions,
motives, or feelings. When describing a character indirectly, a writer depends on the
reader to draw conclusions about the character’s traits or uses other participants in the
story to reveal a character’s traits and motives.
Characters are the individuals who take part in the action of a story.
Conflict is a struggle between two opposing forces. Conflict may be internal or external.
o Internal Conflict is a struggle within a character. Person vs. Self occurs when the
character has a problem that can only be resolved within the character. The character
has difficulty deciding between two opposing desires, ideas, feelings, or thoughts.
The character may have doubts about himself or herself.
o External Conflict is a struggle between the character and some force outside the
character. There are four types of external conflict.
Detail is information revealed by the author or speaker that supports the attitude or tone
in a piece of fiction, poetry, or prose. In informational text, details provide information to
support the author’s main point.
Dialect is a way of speaking that is characteristic of a particular group of people. Dialect may
have distinctive vocabulary and pronunciation, and does not always use standard grammar.
Figurative language is language that uses the imagination to compare one thing to
something that is very different. Figurative language is not literal or factual; it is language
that is representative and suggests an imaginative truth.
A flashback is an interruption of the narrative to show an episode that happened before
that particular point in the story.
Foreshadowing is a hint or clue given to the reader of what is going to happen next in the story.
A hyperbole is language that uses overstatement or exaggeration to communicate
emotion or to create a comic effect. An exaggeration describes something as larger or
wildly different than it actually is.
Irony is the tension that arises from the discrepancy, either between what one says and
what one means (verbal irony), between what a character believes and what a reader
knows (dramatic irony), or between what occurs and what one expects to occur
(situational irony).
Idiom is a colorful expression whose meaning cannot be understood from the actual
word meanings (for example, “to have somebody in stitches” or “to let the cat out of the
bag”). It is a way of using particular language and expressions that is understood by its
native speakers because of familiarity with its usage.
Imagery is the representation in language of sensory experience: what can be seen,
heard, touched, tasted, and smelled. It also includes descriptions of experiences that can
be felt internally. Imagery helps us to form a picture or to visualize something.
A metaphor makes a comparison between two different things without using any linking
words. One thing is spoken of as if it actually was something else.
Mood is the feeling or the main emotion in a work.
Onomatopoeia is the use of words that sound like their meaning. The words imitate the sounds
that they are describing. (i.e. tinkle, hiss, buzz, boom, fizzle, jingle, pop, sputter, etc.)
Oxymoron is language in which contrasting ideas are combined to create a particular effect.
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Persona is a mask that is developed by an author. It is usually a character the author creates to
express a point of view about a subject. The persona does not always reflect the author’s
message. Sometimes an author may use a persona to reveal an opposing point of view.
Personification is language that gives human characteristics to non-human things or abstract
ideas. By using personification, the writer makes the reader look at the object or idea in a
different way.
Plot is the progress of events or what happens in the story.
Point of View is the position from which the story is told.
o In the first person point of view, the narrator (speaker) is a character in the story
who reveals his or her experiences, thoughts, and feelings. The first person narrator is
limited to what he or she observes directly or has been told by other characters.
o Third Person Point of View: In the third person point of view, the narrator (speaker) is
someone outside the story who tells about the characters and actions in the story.
 Third person omniscient point of view has a narrator outside the story who knows
everything about all of the characters in the story. The omniscient narrator knows
what everyone does, says, thinks, or feels.
 Third person limited point of view has a narrator outside the story who knows
only the experiences, thoughts, and feelings of one character. The story is told from
that one character’s perspective.
 Third person objective point of view has a narrator outside the story who gives
only a factual account of the events. The narrator only knows what can be
observed; therefore, the objective point of view does not know the thoughts or
feelings except if they are expressed.
Protagonist is the main character or hero of a text.
Resolution is the portion of a play or story in which the problem is resolved. It comes
after the climax and falling action, and is intended to bring the story to a satisfying end.
Rhyme is the repetition of stressed vowel sounds and all the sounds following them in
words that are close together.
o End rhyme is when the words at the end of two or more lines of poetry rhyme. It is
the most common type of rhyme in poetry.
o Internal rhyme is when words within a line of poetry rhyme. (i.e. The fair breeze
blew, the white foam flew,)
Rhythm is the musical quality created by a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Sarcasm is he use of verbal irony in which a person appears to be praising something but
is actually insulting it.
Satire is a piece of prose in which witty language is used to convey insults or scorn.
Setting is the place where the action happens and the time when they occur.
A simile makes an indirect comparison between two different things using linking words
such as: like, as, than, resembles, etc.
A soliloquy is a speech made by an actor when he is alone on the stage. It reveals the
character’s thoughts and feelings to the audience but not to other characters.
Symbolism is when a writer uses a person, place, thing, or event to represent something
more abstract such as an emotion or idea.
Theme is the statement about life that the author is communicating. It is the central idea,
message, concern, or purpose in a literary work, which may be stated directly or indirectly.
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Turning point is the moment in a story or a play when there is a definite change in
direction and one becomes aware that it is now about to move toward the end.
Tone is the author’s attitude or feelings toward a subject, character, or situation. It is the
overall feeling or effect created by a writer’s attitude, use of words, and sentence structure.
Example Question:
Read these excerpts.
Excerpt from an early draft of “Thoughts on High School”
The years blurred as I passed tests
and went to classes.
I forgot to look through the cracks that separate
are and were and will be.
Revised excerpt from “Thoughts on High School” (lines 36–39)
The years blurred as I tallied tests taken
and lessons learned.
I forgot to look through the cracks that separate
are and were and will be.
How does the use of alliteration in the revised excerpt support the meaning of the poem?
A Alliteration clarifies the speaker’s impatience to graduate from high school.
B Alliteration reinforces the contrast being drawn between the past and the present.
C Alliteration emphasizes the speaker’s enjoyment of individual high school
experiences.
D Alliteration increases the pace of the lines to mimic the swiftness with which time
passes.
Objective 3a: The student will utilize, analyze, or evaluate the composing process (e.g.,
planning, drafting, revising, editing, publishing). (DOK 3)
1) Planning:
• Determine audience
• Determine purpose
• Generate ideas
• Address prompt/topic
• Organize ideas
• Compose a clearly stated thesis
2) Drafting:
• Formulate introduction, body, and conclusion
• Create paragraphs (minimally five paragraphs)
• Use various sentence structures
• Use paraphrasing for reports and documented text
3) Revising:
• Revise for clarity and coherence [consistent point of view (first person, third
person), tone, transition, etc.]
• Add and delete information and details (for audience, for purpose, for unity)
• Use precise language (appropriate vocabulary, concise wording, action verbs,
sensory details, colorful modifiers, etc.)
• Use available resources (reference materials, technology, etc.)
4) Editing:
• Proofread to correct errors
• Apply tools to judge quality (rubric, checklist, feedback, etc.)
5) Publishing:
• Proofread final text
• Prepare final text (PowerPoint, paper, poster, display, oral presentation, writing
portfolio, personal journal, classroom wall, etc.)
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Audience is the person or persons who read or hear what is written. Many qualities of
writing must be appropriate to the audience: (voice and tone, language, etc.)
Coherence is the quality achieved when all the ideas are clearly arranged and connected.
The arrangement of ideas, within and among paragraphs, should be organized in such a
way that the reader can easily move from one point to another. When all ideas are
arranged and connected, a piece of writing has coherence.
Concrete or Specific details are concrete when they can be seen, heard, smelled, tasted,
or touched.
Editing is the process of reviewing text in draft form to check for correctness of the
mechanics and conventions of writing (e.g., spelling, grammar, punctuation,
capitalization, and format).
Elaboration is words used to explain and in some way support the central idea; the
development and expansion of ideas and arguments. Elaboration varies with the type of
writing (e.g., A report may have statistics, examples, anecdotes, and facts, while a
narrative would have description, dialogue, show-and-tell, etc.).
Organization is the clear evidence of a plan or foundation on which writing is built. It
includes intentional introduction, conclusion, and internal/external transitions to connect
ideas.
Paraphrase is the restatement of a text or passage mostly in other (or in own) words.
Point of View is the position from which the story is told.
o In the first person point of view, the narrator (speaker) is a character in the story
who reveals his or her experiences, thoughts, and feelings. The first person narrator is
limited to what he or she observes directly or has been told by other characters.
o Third Person Point of View: In the third person point of view, the narrator (speaker) is
someone outside the story who tells about the characters and actions in the story.
Prewriting is the initial creative and planning stage of writing, prior to drafting, in which
the writer formulates ideas, gathers information, and considers ways in which to organize
a piece of writing.
Purpose is the specific reason for writing. The goal of the writing is to entertain, express,
inform, explain, persuade, etc.).
Revising is the process of changing a piece of writing to improve clarity for its intended
audience and make certain that it accomplishes its stated purpose.
Thesis is the controlling idea about a topic that the writer is attempting to prove; a
sentence that announces the writer’s main, unifying, controlling idea about a topic. A
thesis statement usually contains two main elements: a limited subject and a statement
about the subject.
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Transitions are words or phrases that help tie ideas together (e.g., however, on the other
hand, since, first, etc.).
Voice is the style and quality of the writing, which includes word choice, a variety of
sentence structures, and evidence of investment. Voice portrays the author’s personality
or the personality of the chosen persona. A distinctive voice establishes personal
expression and enhances the writing.
Example Question:
Read this thesis and outline of the body paragraphs of a student essay.
Thesis: Following a complex four-step process, paper can be made for a variety of artistic
purposes.
I. Turning plant material into fiber
II. Mixing the plant fiber with water
III. Dipping the screen to form the sheet
IV. Removing the screen and drying the sheet
Which of the following conclusions is appropriate for this essay?
F The beauty of the finished product encourages papermakers to continue this difficult
four-step process. First comes mixing the plant fiber with water, then dipping, and finally
drying. This process, requiring effort and skill, is more than worth it for those looking to
use the handmade paper for artistic purposes.
G The beauty of the finished product encourages papermakers to repeat this difficult
four-step process. From the conversion of the plant material into fiber to the dipping and
drying phases, the process requires effort and skill. For those who use the handmade
paper for a variety of artistic projects, the effort is more than worth it. _
H This four-step process creates beautiful handmade paper. Some people like to use this
for arts and crafts, while others prefer the wide range of factory-produced paper now
available. Factory papers can be found in huge variety at specialty paper stores. Websites
sell mass-produced papers too, and a few even have handmade papers for sale.
J This four-step process creates beautiful handmade paper. First comes converting the
plant material into fiber, then mixing in water, dipping, and finally drying. Some people
like to use the resulting sheets for arts and crafts, while others are content to use the huge
variety of factory-made paper now available. Both can be found at specialty paper stores
and online, but the handmade paper is harder to find.
Objective 3b: The student will compose text in the narrative mode clearly relating an
event, telling explicitly what happened within a time frame defined by the event. (DOK
3)

A narrative is a story or narrated account of actual or fictional events. The purpose of a
narrative is to tell a story or give an account of something dealing with sequences of
events and experiences.

Narrative essays are narrative writing that tell a story; they are told from a defined point
of view, often the author’s, so there is feeling as well as specific sensory details provided
to get the reader involved in the elements and sequence of the story. The verbs are vivid
and precise. The narrative essay makes a point and that point is often defined in the
opening sentence, but can also be found as the last sentence in the opening paragraph.
Focuses on one event
with a clear beginning,
middle, and end
Includes vivid
descriptions of specific
details, including action
and sensory imagery
Tells what happened
within a specific time
frame defined by the
event
Narrative Mode
Uses chronological or
sequential order to
organize the details
May include purposeful
dialogue
Uses a specific point of
view (personal
narratives use the first
person point of view)
Example Question:
Read the following paragraph.
Bolting from my bed as I heard the awful clamor of the alarm clock, I quickly jumped into
my clothes, stumbled down the stairs, and turned the corner into the kitchen. As I buttered
my toast, I listened to the meteorologist’s forecast while the thunder clapped outside. I
quickly perused my list of things to do and wondered how I ever would finish without getting
soaked. Stuffing the list into my pocket and grabbing my umbrella, I braced myself for the
cold rain and headed out the door.
Which of the following sentences concludes the paragraph while maintaining the
narrative mode and the voice already established?
A The rain was coming down in buckets, and I looked down, seeing that I was soaked to
the skin.
B Falling to the ground, the rain continued its deluge on my neighborhood as I was
standing there uncovered.
C Sprinting to the car, I slipped on the slick surface of the driveway and fell headlong
into the rose bush, not the best omen for beginning the day.
D The meteorologist had not prepared me for the amount of precipitation that was falling to
the ground, and I could see that my efforts were going to be tested by the weather.
Objective 4a: The student will analyze text to determine the appropriate use of
advanced grammar in composing or editing. (DOK 2)
2) Active and passive voice
3) Avoiding ambiguous pronoun reference
Active and Passive Voice: Choosing between writing in the active voice or the passive
voice is often a question of style and not correctness. However, the passive voice is less direct,
less forceful, and less concise than the active voice. In some cases, the passive voice may be
awkward, especially in long sentences.

Voice is the form a transitive verb takes to indicate whether the subject of the verb
performs or receives the action.

A transitive verb is an action verb for which there is a receiver of the action of the verb;
someone or something receives the action of the verb.
William Shakespeare writes poetry. (Poetry receives the action).
Many poems were written by William Shakespeare. (Poems receives the action.)

A transitive verb is in the active voice when the subject of the verb performs the action.
o Verbs in the active voice have direct objects and sometimes indirect objects.
Susan Glaspell wrote the short play Trifles.
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A transitive verb is in the passive voice when the subject receives the action.
o Verbs in the passive voice do not have direct or indirect objects.
The short play Trifles was written by Susan Glaspell.
o The verb in a passive construction always includes a form of be and the past
participle of a transitive verb.

The Retained Object: A transitive verb in the active voice may have an indirect object
as well as a direct object. Either object can become the subject or can remain a
complement in the passive construction.
o A complement in a passive construction is called a retained object, not a direct
object or indirect object.
Ms. Carey (subject) gave (verb) each child (indirect object) a slice of pie.
(direct object)
Each child (subject) was given (verb) a slice of pie. (retained object)
A slice of pie (subject) was given (verb) to each child (retained object. The
retained object in this sentence becomes the object of the preposition to.)

Uses of Passive Voice: The passive voice construction is appropriate and useful in the
following situations.
o When the writer does not know the performer of the action or when the writer
does not want to reveal the performer of the action.
Ms. Carey’s windows were wiped with soap on Halloween night.
Pumpkin pie was made for the Halloween party.
o When the writer wants to emphasize the receiver of the action.
Penicillin was discovered accidentally. Anne Frank’s diary has been translated
into many languages.
Example Question:
Which sentence uses only active voice?
F
G
H
J
Jake eyed the horizon and grinned broadly when he caught sight of us.
The horse had been brushed and fed earlier, but it only sniffed the oats.
The students are served better by companies contracted to prepare food.
Shawna was the first to finish the exam, and she was rewarded with a smile.
A pronoun is a word that is used in place of one or more nouns. A pronoun may also take the
place of another pronoun or a verbal.
Avoiding Ambiguous Pronouns

A pronoun’s meaning is made clear only when the reader knows what word it stands for.
The word that the pronoun stands for is called the antecedent of the pronoun.
o A pronoun should always refer clearly to its antecedent.
o Avoid ambiguous pronoun reference, which occurs when a pronoun refers to
either of two antecedents.

Personal pronouns take the place of a specific person (or thing) in a sentence. They
change form to express person, number, and gender.
Singular: I, me, my, mine, you, your, yours, he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its
Plural: we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, they, them, their, theirs

Reflexive pronouns reflect an action back upon the antecedent.

Intensive pronouns add emphasis, but are not essential to the sentence.
o Both reflexive and intensive pronouns are formed by adding –self or –selves to certain
personal pronouns
Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves

Indefinite pronouns are pronouns that do not refer to a specific person or thing. They
often have no antecedents.
Singular: another, anybody, anyone, anything, everybody, everyone, everything,
much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, something
Plural: both, few, many, several
Singular or Plural: all, any, more, most, none, some

Demonstrative pronouns point out persons or things that are near or far in space or time.
This, that, these, those

Relative pronouns relate a clause to the word or words it modifies. The noun or pronoun
that the clause modifies is the antecedent of the relative pronoun.
who, whom, whose, which, that

Interrogative pronouns are used to introduce questions.
who, whom, whose, which, what
Example Question:
Read these statements.
Statement 1
Next Friday afternoon Milton is going with Max to view an art exhibit that he loves.
Statement 2
Chantal expected to meet her sister outside the main entrance of the mall as she had promised
earlier.
Statement 3
Maurice placed his textbook in his backpack, but he could not find it the next morning.
Statement 4
Marion asked Rachel how the math test had gone, and Rachel told her that it went well.
Which statement avoids an ambiguous pronoun?
F Statement 1
G Statement 2
H Statement 3
J Statement 4