Social Loafing
Do people try less hard when working in groups?
If so, why do they do so?
Ringleman Effect --- (e.g., with rope pulling task)
The average performance (input) of individuals decreases as
group size increases
Why?
a) Less effort
b) Coordination issues
Ringelmann Findings
Individuals
Individual
Efforts
(Sum)
Group
Effort
Group/Indiv
idual Ratio
1-7
764
480
.63
8-14
516
432
.84
15-21
533.7
435.4
.82
22-28
575.5
471.2
.82
15-28
1109.2
858.9
.78
Ringelmann Findings (cont.)
Subject 1
Subject 2
Sum
Dyad
Performance
60.0
114.0
174.0
180.0
85.2
79.2
164.4
120.0
97.2
78.0
175.2
174.0
72.0
81.6
153.6
156.0
84.0
78.0
162.0
132.0
54.0
72.0
126.0
140.4
78.0
88.8
168.8
144.0
78.0
102.0
180.0
152.4
78.0
86.4
164.0
122.4
72.0
69.6
141.6
110.4
Yelling (& clapping) studies by Latane, Williams, & Harkins
Alone
In actual groups
In pseudo-groups
Less individual effort when
in groups, even in “groups”
when no one was present
(but people thought they
were)
Potential productivity
Actual groups
Pseudo-groups
10
Sound
pressure
per person
8
Reduced effort
(Social loafing)
6
Coordination loss
4
2
1
2
6
Group size
Why less effort (loafing)?
• Expectation that others are trying (or will try) less hard (equity)
• Optimizing goal setting, rather than maximizing
• Less social pressure on each individual group member
• Less contingency between individual inputs and
outputs (individuals in groups cannot be identified;
anonymous)
Social Pressure
Social Loafing Across Cultures
Alone
Performance
Group
30
27
24.5
23.8
23.3
24
20.8
21
18.5
18
16.5
15
United States
Israel
Country
China
The Stages of Groupthink
What are the causes and consequences of groupthink?
Video
Antecedent
Conditions
Systems of
Groupthink
Consequences
Closed-mindedness
Isolated, cohesive,
homogeneous
decision-making
group
Lack of impartial
leadership
High stress
Rationalization
Squelching dissent
“Mindguards”
Feelings of
righteousness
and invulnerability
Self-censorship
Incomplete
examination of
alternatives
Failure to
examine risks
and consequences
Incomplete search
for information
Poor
decisions
Other Group Decision-Making Phenomena
Collective Entrapment --- The more effort used to make a decision, the
greater likelihood of sticking to that decision (even if it’s been shown to be
incorrect)
Common Knowledge Effect --- Information held by most group
members exerts a stronger impact on final decisions
Ways to Improve Group Decision-Making
Leadership style (impartial, use of outside input)
Brainstorming?
Nominal Group Technique
• Define the problem
• Individuals anonymously generate solutions
• Solutions presented to the group (no evaluation allowed)
• Group rates solutions
• Best solution is chosen (vote, consensus)