General Psychology
PSY201
Instructor: Ms. T. Gumbs
Introduction to PSY 201

My websites:
◦ Blog: http://msgumbspsy201.wordpress.com/
◦ Twitter: https://twitter.com/MsGumbsatMiles
PSY 201 Course Textbook

Psychology: Concepts and Connections,
10th edition
by Spencer Rathus
Determinism v. Free Will

Do you believe in determinism, (i.e., your is life
determined by outside forces?)
or

Do you believe in free will?

What can science hope to reveal if the world
is not determined?
WHAT IS
PSYCHOLOGY?
Pseudopsychologies
Pseudopsychologies are unreliable approaches that
do not use the scientific method
 Examples of pseudopsychologies include:

◦ Phrenology: attempt to assess personality by examining
one’s head
◦ Astrology: system that tries to relate personality to the
movement of the stars
◦ Palmistry: idea that reading a person’s character
from the lines on their palms
The Study of Psychology
•
Psychology is the scientific study of
behavior and
mental processes
• Psychology employs scientific research
• Psychology values empirical evidence
• Psychology employs critical thinking
4 Goals of Psychology
1. Description identifies and classifies behaviors
and mental processes using careful
observations
2. Explanation proposing reasons for behaviors
and mental processes
3. Prediction allows for specification of the
conditions under which a behavior will occur or
not
4. Control (Influence) uses the results of
research to solve practical problems
Where did Psychology Come From?

Ancient Greek philosophers
◦ Aristostle-wrote Peri Psyches
“About the Psyche”
 Human behavior subject to rules
& laws like nature
◦ Democritus-suggested thinking of behavior in
terms of mind & body
◦ Socrates-advised to “Know thyself”
 Reliable self-knowledge not attained through the
senses but through introspection (i.e., careful
observation)
Historical Schools of Psychological
Thought
Structuralist
 Functionalist
 Psychodynamic

(a.k.a. Psychoanalytic)
Behaviorist
 Humanist

Wilhelm Wundt (standing, with gray beard)
and colleagues 1880
Structuralism
(late 19th century)
 Wilhelm Wundt
“father of psychology”
◦ Disgusted w/phrenology
◦ set up 1st psychology lab to study consciousness in
Leipzig, Germany (1879)
◦ observed various stimuli, physical energies that evokes
a response people & animals (eg. lights & sound)
◦ used introspection, “looking inward” to
examine his reaction to stimuli
◦ called his approach experimental selfobservation, which combined trained
introspection with objective measurement
Structuralism (late 19th century)

Edward B. Titchener-carried Wundt’s ideas to
the US (1890s), where it was called…
 Structuralism-concerned with analyzing
sensations and personal experience into
basic elements
◦ Focus: studying the structure of the
mind

Problems:
◦ structuralists hardly agreed
◦ Cannot prove/disprove introspection
Functionalism
(early 20th century)

Functionalism-concerned with how humans and
animals use mental processes in adapting to
their environment
◦ Focus: the function of the mind

Charles Darwin-evolutionary theory
◦ Contributions:
 Increased animal use in psychological experiments

William James-”stream of consciousness”
◦ Contributions:
 Study of children, animals, and mentally
impaired
 Study of educational practices, individual
practices and workplace adaptation
Early Pioneers of Psychology

Structuralists focused on sensations and
perceptual experiences
“structure of the mind”

Functionalists investigated functions of
mental processes in adapting to the
environment
“function of the mind”
Behaviorism
(most influential until
1960s & influential today)

challenged functionalism
 No need to study mental processes
 emphasized the study of overt behavior
 objective and measurable behaviors
◦ John B Watson-explained behavior as learned
reactions to certain stimuli as a result of conditioning
(discovered by Pavlov-1880s)
◦ B.F. Skinner-explained that behavior is shaped and
maintained by its consequences

Contribution:
◦ Helped separate psychology from philosophy
◦ Respected as a science
Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytic

Sigmund Freud-Austrian doctor
◦ believed our behavior is influenced by
unconscious thoughts, impulses, and desires
(dark view of humans)
◦ Contribution:
 Psychoanalysis-a “talking therapy”
where the psychologist explores
the thoughts of patients
(early1900s)
 Importance of childhood
experiences
Humanism
(late 1930s &
influential today)

Humanism- a positive view of humans
◦ Stresses free will & inner-self (unlike behaviorism)
and private subjective experience
◦ Less concerned about the scientific aspect, more
concerned with human potential
◦ Psychological needs for love, belonging,
self-esteem, & spirituality
◦ Abraham Maslow developed the
concept of self-actualization, reaching
one’s full potential
“Psych humor”
“Psych humor”
Ancient Greek Phiolosphers

Aristostle- (384-322 B.C.E.)
◦ wrote Peri Psyches
“About the Psyche”
◦ Human behavior subject to rules
& laws like nature

Democritus- (400 B.C.E.) suggested thinking of
behavior in terms of mind & body

Socrates-advised to “Know thyself”
 Reliable self-knowledge not attained through the senses
but through introspection (i.e., careful observation)
Who’s Who of Psychology
Late 19th century

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) p. 10
◦ What is he known as?
◦ Which school of thought does he belong to?

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
◦ What theory is he known for?
◦ How does his theory relate to behavior?
◦ Which school of thought?

William James (1842-1910) p. 11
◦ Author of first modern psychology textbook
Principles of Psychology
◦ Which school of thought?
Who’s Who of Psychology
Early 20th century
 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) p. 10
◦ Which school of thought does he belong to?
◦ What therapy technique is he known for?

Mary Calkins (1863-1930) p. 21
◦ Attended Harvard University as a “guest student”
◦ Completed all her requirements for Ph.D. at
Harvard University, but was denied her degree
◦ Pioneer in memory research

John B. Watson (1878-1958) p. 12
◦ Which school of thought?
◦ Theory: behavior is a set of learned reactions to
the environment (classical conditioning)
Who’s Who of Psychology
Early-Mid 20th century

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
◦ Which school of thought?
◦ Theory: behavior is shaped and maintained by
its consequences (operant conditioning)

Frances Cecil Sumner (1895-1954)
◦ Father of Black Psychology
◦ (1920) first African American to
receive a Ph.D. degree in psychology

Abraham Maslow (1908-1990)
◦ Which school of thought?
◦ Theory: self actualization
Black Psychology

Frances Cecil Sumner
◦ Father of Black Psychology
◦ 1920-first African American to
receive a Ph.D. degree in psychology
◦ Studied “race psychology” at Clarke University
◦ Chair of Psychology department at Howard
University

Dr. Kenneth Clark &
Mamie Clark p.22
◦ Doll Test
Introduction to Psychology Review
1.
2.
3.
4.
Psychology is defined
as the study of
_____.
The 4 goals of
psychology is to
describe, _____,
_____, & _____
behavior.
What is the
difference between
behaviorism &
humanism?
What is the
difference between
psychodynamic &
humanism?
5. Name the following
individuals pictured & identify
the school of thought and major
contributions.
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Mary Calkins Wilson
Dr. Kenneth & Mamie Clark
Sigmund Freud
William James
Abraham Maslow
B.F. Skinner
Frances Cecil Sumner
John B. Watson
Wilhelm Wundt
Other Modern Perspectives
•
•
Cognitive psychology
focuses on mental
function and reasoning
(1950s-today)
• Gestalt psychology
emphasized perception; the
notion that the whole is
more than the sum of the
parts
•
Biopsychology views
behavior as reflecting
brain processes
(1800s & major impact
today)
Evolutionary psychology
asserts that certain
behavioral characteristics
are subject to natural
selection
(late 1800s-today)
•
Sociocultural psychology
examines the influence of
culture and ethnic practice
on people’s behavior
(1930s-today; ethics crisis in
1970s)
Areas of Psychology
•
•
Clinical Psychologists
Counseling
Psychologists
•
Educational
Psychologists
•
•
School Psychologists
Industrial/
Organizational
Psychologists
•
Developmental
Psychologists
•
•
Social psychologists
Health Psychologists
Consumer
Psychologists
•
•
Forensic Psychologists
Sport Psychologists
Cultural Differences in
Psychology

Black Folks Don’t….Go to Therapy
As a multicultural psychologist, you will research the
above theory and in your group, you will brainstorm...
1) How would you find out why African Americans are
less likely than other racial groups to seek therapy.

Next, you will use the
scientific method to solve
the following problem:
2) How would you come up
with techniques to increase
African Americans’
participation in therapy
programs?

Areas of Psychology
•
•
Clinical Psychologists
Counseling
Psychologists
•
Educational
Psychologists
•
•
School Psychologists
Industrial/
Organizational
Psychologists
•
Developmental
Psychologists
•
•
Social psychologists
Health Psychologists
Consumer
Psychologists
•
•
Forensic Psychologists
Sport Psychologists
Psychology Degrees By Area
Psychological Research

Two forms of psychological research:
◦ Pure (Basic) research seeks answers for
theoretical questions
 E.g. How is hunger controlled by the brain?
◦ Applied research seeks answers for specific
application problems
 E.g. Organizational psychology studies leadership, job
satisfaction, job training, and development
Overview of the Scientific Method
Descriptive Research

Naturalistic observation refers to the systematic
recording of behavior in a natural state or habitat
◦ Jane Goodall observing apes in the wild

Surveys are instruments designed to sample
attitudes or behaviors
◦ Asking persons at a rally how they feel about animal
rights issues

A case study is an in-depth study of a single
person
◦ Freud used the case study method to probe anxiety
Research Methods-Naturalistic

Naturalistic Observation-observing in natural
environment
◦ Animal studies
◦ Child studies
◦ Limitations:
 Observer effect-change in bx because someone’s
watching
 Anthromorphic error-attributing human thoughts to
animals
Correlational Research

Finding the degree (strength) of
relationship between 2 traits, behaviors, or
events
◦ Not interested in finding the cause, just making
predictions
◦ No causation established

Relationships measured by coefficient of
correlation +1.00 –1.00
Correlational Research

The correlation technique indicates the degree
of association between 2 variables

Correlations vary in direction:
◦ Positive association: increases in the value
of variable 1 are associated with increases
in the value of variable 2
◦ Negative association: increases in the
value of variable 1 are associated with
decreases in the value of variable 2
◦ No relation: values of variable 1 are not
related to variable 2 values
Correlational Study examples

Consider each of the following paired
variables. Make an estimate of whether the
correlation between them would be
generally positive, negative, or zero.
Correlational Study examples
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
IQ scores and school
grades?
Reading ability and
popularity?
IQ and shoe size?
Height and weight of a
person?
Team wins and the
number of penalties
against a team?
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Income and health?
Years spent in
University and income?
Athletic ability and IQ?
Cell phone use and
vehicle accidents?
Length of hair and IQ?
Correlational Study examples
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
IQ scores and school
grades? +
Reading ability and
popularity? IQ and shoe size? 0
Height and weight of a
person? 0
Team wins and the
number of penalties
against a team? -
6.
7.
8.
6.
7.
Income and health? +
Years spent in University
and income? +
Athletic ability and
IQ? 0 or Cell phone use and vehicle
accidents? +
Length of hair and IQ? 0
Correlation review
1) Which of the following has a stronger
correlation?
◦ Cognitive functioning & hours of sleep: r= +0.6
◦ Internet usage & hours spent with family: r= -0.8
2) What is the problem with the following
article?
◦ Ice cream consumption is dangerous! Studies show
that there is a strong positive correlation between
ice cream consumption and drownings, ice cream
consumption and boating accidents, and ice cream
consumption and shark attacks.
“Psych humor”
The Heisman Curse

The Heisman Curse article
Correlation Difficulties
The Experiment

An experiment involves a set of controlled
conditions that aims to confirm a
hypothesis, a prediction about a cause and
effect relationship bet/2 variables
◦ Unlike correlations, experiments
establish cause & effect relationships

How does X affect Y?
Experimental Method

How does X (indep. var) affect Y (dep. var)?
1)
2)
3)

Form hypothesis
Define variables
Randomly assign groups
Experimental Group
◦ Exposed to X
(independent variable or
IV) or multiple variations of
a variable
4)
5)

Control group (Comparison
group/point of reference)
◦ Exposed to all the same
conditions except X
(independent variable or IV)
Measure effects of IV on DV
Determine statistical significance- Did the IV really
make a difference? Results would have to be
unlikely to occur by chance alone
Experimental Variables
Hypothesis: “Listening to music
increases productivity in the workplace.”
 To test a hypothesis, defines the variables of the
hypothesis:
◦ Cause: Independent variable (IV)
 Music: Participants working at an automotive company listen to jazz
music while performing their tasks.
 Sometimes more than one IV- jazz, classical, rock, & country
◦ Effect: Dependent variable (DV)
 Work productivity: Time to complete tasks such as tire rotations
and oil changes

A) What is another way to test the effect of music in the
workplace? B) How do we measure the effects
Limitations of Experiments
•Placebo effects represent changes in
behavior that are related to expectations
of a treatment
–Placebo effects are controlled by a blind
control group (the subject does not know
whether the treatment was given or not)
Limitations of Experiments
•Experimenter bias refers to expectations
that influence subject behavior
–can be controlled using double blind
procedures (experimenters and subjects are
ignorant of treatment conditions)
•Selection bias occurs when participants
are assigned to experimental or control
groups in a way that systematic
differences exist at the beginning of an
experiment
Experiments

Blind and Double-Blind Experiments
◦ Placebo or “sugar pill”
◦ Blind:
 Control for the expectations of effects by creating
conditions where the subjects are unaware of the
treatment.
◦ Double-blind:
 Neither the subjects nor the experimenters know
who has obtained the treatment.
Statistical Techniques

Statistics: science concerned
with obtaining and organizing
numerical information or
measurements
◦ Descriptive Statistics:
 provides information about
distributions of scores
◦ Inferential Statistics:
 determines whether we can
generalize (infer) differences among
samples to the general population
 Uses statistical significance
Statistical Techniques

Descriptive Statistics
◦ provides information about distributions of
scores.
◦ Relies on central tendencies or averages
of scores in a frequency distributions.
 Mean: adding scores and dividing total by # of
scores
 Median: the score which lies in the middle of a
distribution
 Mode: most frequently occurring score
Ethical Issues in
Research

Respecting the rights of
human research participants involves:
◦ Informed consent is an explanation of a study and
the responsibilities of experimenter and participant
◦ Deception involving the subjects must be justified
(benefit outweighs the harm)
◦ Confidentiality of study information must be
maintained
◦ Debriefing refers to explaining the research process
to the subjects at the end of the study

Animal research must be justified and must
minimize discomfort to participants