Assessing Leadership:
Who is a leader and
how do we know it?
Tom Mitchell, U. of Baltimore
Division of Applied Behavioral Sciences
tmitchell@ubalt.edu
http://home.ubalt.edu/tmitch
410 837 5348
May 17, 2006 Md. SHA
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Why we need to know
Selection
- hire new managers (first line to mid level)
Promotion
- succession planning and staffing
Development
- training and coaching
- diagnose problems
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Who are they?
• Definitions of leadership:
• Person who motivates others to perform well
• Directing & coordinating group activities (Fiedler, ‘67)
• Influencing others to achieve a common goal (Northouse, 2004)
• Building networked relationships to enhance cooperation (Day, 2001)
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Conceptual Distinctions
• Born or bred?
• Leader Emergence vs. Effectiveness
• Leadership vs. Management /supervision
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Conceptual Distinctions
• Leadership v. Management
– Power sources (French & Raven, ’59)
• Position v. Personal power
•
Power source:
–
–
–
–
–
1. Reward:
2. Coercive
3. Legitimate
4. Referent
5. Expert
Power influence:
give rewards
punish
demand
identifies with supervisor
knowledge & expertise
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Conceptual Distinctions
• Leadership v. Management
•
Power source:
Power:
– 1. Reward:
– 2. Coercive
– 3. Legitimate
give rewards
punish
demand
– 4. Referent
– 5. Expert
identifies with supervisor
knowledge & expertise
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Leader vs. Manager
(Kotter, ‘90)
Establish Direction
Plan / Budget
vision - set strategy
resources – time lines
Align People
Organize / Staffing
team building - Commitment
establish rules - hire
Motivate & Inspire
Control / Problem Solve
Inspire - empower
Incentives – take action
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Theories: History (short)
• Trait (’20s – ’30s) -> dead end
– E.g. height / weight / ambitious / gender
• Behavioral (’50s – ’60s: Ohio state, Fleishman & Harris, ’62)
– Consideration / initiating structure (LOQ)
• Contingency (’60s – ’70s: U. MI; Fiedler ‘67)
– Situational leadership (Hersey & Blanchard, 77)
– Path -> Goal (House & Mitchell, ’74)
• Trait (again!)
– Charismatic
– Transformational v. transactional (Bass, ’06)
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Leadership: Factors and Competencies
(Jeanneret and Silzer, 1998)
• Thinking skills
– Analyzing information
– Solving problems
• Work management skills
– Planning and organizing work
– Being resourceful
• Interpersonal and communication skills
– Building networks
– Relating to others
• Leadership skills
– Motivating and inspiring others
– Coaching and developing others
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Factors and Competencies (cont’)
• Motivation skills
– Adapting to change
– Showing drive and taking action
• Personal factors
– Demonstrating integrity and trust
– Modeling cultural values
• Organizational skills
– Focusing on customers
– Committing to quality
• Technical skills
– Demonstrating functional expertise
– Knowing the business
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Transformational Leadership
(Bass & Avolio, ‘2000)
• Transformational Leadership
• Transactional Leadership
• Passive/Avoidant
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Personal traits:
Transformational Leadership
• Transactional leaders
– Social exchange
• Transformational leaders
– Stimulate and Inspire
– Grow and develop
– Empower followers
• Passive/Avoidant
– MBE / Lassiez Faire
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Transformational Leader
Characteristics
• Idealized Influence
– Role model / emulation
• Inspirational Motivation
– Vision / challenging
• Intellectual Stimulation
– Encourages creativity
• Individualized Consideration
– Coaching / mentoring
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Assessing Leadership
• Who they are (now we know)
• How do we know?
– Why do we need to know?
– Identifying and Assessing Leaders
(assessment strategies)
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Need to Identify Them
– Recruitment
– Selection
– Succession planning (promotion)
– Development
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Assessment: How to
• Start with Job analysis:
• Id SMEs
– Conduct interviews
• Review job description
• Confirm leadership duties and KSAOs
– (use factors and competencies)
• Develop matrix (duties & competencies)
• Document Job Analysis findings
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Assessment:
Issues in Assessing
• Validity & reliability
• Utility (effectiveness and cost)
• Test portability (VG)
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Assessment: Issues
• Validity strategies
– Content validity
– Criterion related validity
– Construct validity
– Face validity
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Assessment: Issues
• Utility
– Effectiveness
– Logistics
– Screening or ranking
• Costs
– Internal: Agency Personnel
– External: Vendors = $$$
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Assessment: Issues
• Validity Generalization
– Constructs are valid
– Job analysis: JA verification
• Test portability
– Why re-invent the wheel?
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Assessment:
Principal Traits
(Northouse, ’04)
•
•
•
•
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Intelligence
Self-confidence
Determination
Integrity
Sociability
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Assessment:
Methods
• Personal History
• Assessment center
• Behavioral interview / Oral board
– handout “Candidate Leadership Ratings”
• Written tests / inventories
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Assessment:
Personal History
•
•
•
•
•
Supplemental application blank
References
Past performance reviews
Past accomplishments
Peer assessments (promo / dev)
– 360 / multi-rater
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Assessment: Assessment Center
•
•
•
•
Situational interview
In-basket technique
Job simulation
Leaderless Group Discussion
– Leader emergence
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Assessment:
Written tests/ inventories
•
•
•
•
•
Cognitive ability
Integrity inventories
Personality inventories
Leadership ability tests
Biodata
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Assessment:
Cognitive Ability
•
Watson-Glazer Critical Thinking Appraisal
(Psychological Corporation: Harcourt Brace, Pub)
•
-> Measures:
–
–
–
–
–
•
Wonderlic Personnel Test
–
•
Inference
Recognition of Assumptions
Deduction
Interpretation (generalizing, conclusions)
Evaluation of Arguments
(Wonderlic Personnel Test, Inc., 1992. 1-800 323-3742 )
-> Measures
–
–
“g” general intelligence (potential for development)
Extensive norms
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Assessment: Integrity
• Integrity tests
– Overt
– Personality
• Hogan Personnel Selection Scale
– (organizational delinquency)
– http://www.hoganassessments.com/
– Polygraph (?)
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Assessment:
Personality Inventories
• NEO-PI (Five factor model)
– (Costa & McRae, ’92)
• CPI (California Psychological Inventory)
– CPP (Gough)
• HPI (Hogan Personality Inventory)
– (R. & J. Hogan)
• IPIP (International Personality Item Pool)
– (L.Goldberg)
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Five Factor Model:
Big Five Personality Dimensions (C A N O E) (Barrick & Mount, ’91
•
Conscientiousness
– persistence, doggedness, hardworking, dependable,
– thorough, and responsible.
•
Agreeableness
– being liked, courtesy, good-natured, cooperative, forgiving, soft
hearted.
•
Neuroticism
– anxiety, depression, anger worry, and insecurity.
•
Open to Experience
– imaginative, creative, broad-minded and intelligent.
•
Extroversion
– sociability, gregariousness, talkativeness, and activity.
.
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NEO-PI
• NEO-PI-R (Costa & McRae, ‘92)
– NEO Personality Inventory: Revised
• Long & short version
• Management report
• Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. (PAR)
http://www3.parinc.com/
May 17, 2006 Md. SHA
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CPI:
Psychological Personality Inventory (3rd ed)
• 20 scales (approximate “Big five”)
• 2 special scales:
– Managerial Potential (Mp)
– Leadership Potential (Lp)
• Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. (CPP)
– http://www.cpp.com/
May 17, 2006 Md. SHA
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Hogan Personality Inventory:
(HPI)
• 7 traits:
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–
–
–
–
–
•
BIG Five
Adjustment
(Neuroticism)
Ambition / Sociability (Extraversion)
Likeability
(Agreeableness)
Prudence
(Conscientiousness)
Intellectance &
(Openness)
school success
Hogan Assessments, Inc. http://www.hoganassessments.com/
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IPIP
• IPIP International Personality Item Pool
– (L.Goldberg) http://ipip.ori.org/ipip/
• Five Factors:
– http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/j/5/j5j/IPIP/
– Long version: 300 items (40-60 minutes)
– Short version: 120 items (15-20 minutes)
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Leadership Ability:
Measures
• Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ)
– (Self report)
• The Supervisory Behavior Description (SBD)
– (used by subordinates to rate supervisor)
• (E. Fleishman, Ohio State studies)
• Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)
• (B. Bass, transformational Leadership)
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Leadership Ability: LOQ
• Two dimensions (independent constructs)
– Consideration
• Concern for others
– Initiating structure
• Task oriented
– Creative Organizational Design, Inc. (COD)
• http://www.creativeorgdesign.com/testpages/loq.htm
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LOQ: Consideration
• Relationships with subordinates characterized by:
– Mutual trust
– Respect for their ideas
– Consideration of their feelings
– Warmth between manager and subordinate
• High score: Good rapport and two-way communications
•
Low score: More impersonal in relations with group members
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LOQ: Initiating Structure
• Defines own and subordinates’ roles toward goal attainment
• High score: Takes very active role in directing activities through
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–
–
–
–
•
Planning
Communicating information
Scheduling
Criticizing
Trying new ideas
Low score: Relatively inactive in directing activites
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LOQ
used for:
•
•
•
•
Training
Assessment of culture
Selection
Coaching
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MLQ
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
(Bass & Avolio)
• Transformational Leadership
• Transactional Leadership
• Passive/Avoidant
• Mindgarden, Inc. http://mindgarden.com/products/mlqr.htm
May 17, 2006 Md. SHA
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MLQ: Used for
• Selection
• Succession Planning
• Development (3600 Feedback)
• Diagnosis / coaching
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Some Vendors
• CCL Center for Creative Leadership
– http://www.ccl.org/leadership/index.aspx
• PDI Personnel Decisions International
– http://www.personneldecisions.com
• DDI Development Dimensions International
– http://www.ddiworld.com/our_expertise/leadership.asp
• Personnel Testing Council Metropolitan Washington
– http://www.ptcmw.org/
(I/O consulting firms)
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Conclusion
• Because
– We know who they are &
– Can identify them
• We can
– Improve Agency functioning & productivity
• Through effectiveness
– Reduce costs
• Improve the bottom line
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Leadership
• Comments?
• Questions?
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Online Sources:
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Center for Creative Leadership
http://www.ccl.org/leadership/index.aspx
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Development Dimensions International (DDI)
http://www.ddiworld.com/our_expertise/leadership.asp
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Personnel Decisions International
http://www.personneldecisions.com
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Hogan Personnel Selection Scale
http://www.hoganassessments.com/
•
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Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
http://mindgarden.com/products/mlqr.htm
•
•
Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ)
http://www.creativeorgdesign.com/testpages/loq.htm
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References
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Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The big five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis.
Personnel Psychology, 44, 1-26.
Bass, B. M. & Riggio, R. E. (2006). Transformational Leadership. 2nd ed. Lawrence Erlbaum, pub.
Bass, B. & Avolio, B. (2000). MLQ Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire 2nd ed. Redwood City, CA: Mind Garden
Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO PI Personality Inventory: NEO PI and NEO Five Factor
Inventory (NEO FFI: Professional Manual: Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.)
Fiedler, F. (1967). A theory of Leadership Effectiveness. New York: McGraw Hill.
Fleishman, E. A. & Harris, E. F. (1962). Patterns of leadership behavior related to employee grievances and
turnover. Personnel Psychology, 15, 43-56.
French, J. R. P, & Raven, B. H. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright. (Ed.),
– Studies of social power ) pp. 150-157. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.
Jeanneret, Richard, & Silzer, Rob. (1998). Individual Psychological Assessment Predicting behavior in
organizational settings. Jossey Bass pub. Chapter 12 Shaping organizational leadership.
Johnson, Jeff W., Questar Data Systems, Inc. Mineapolis, MN JEFFJ@PDI-CORP.COM
(Handout for ratings leadership characteristics)
Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1977). Management of Organizational Behavior, 3rd 3d. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall
House, R. J., & Mitchell, T. R. (1974). Path-goal theory of leadership. Journal of Contemporary Business, 3, 81-97.
Kotter, J. P. (1990). A force for change: How leadership differs from management (pp. 3-8). New York: Free Press
Northouse, Peter G. (2004). Leadership: Theory and Practice. 3rd ed. Sage, pub.
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