Critical Theory
By Jessica Studer, Kari Carlson,
and Chris Logan
Roots of Critical Theory
• This school of thought emerged from the
work of German theorists collectively
known as The Frankfurt School. The roots
of Critical Theory are directly centered in
the creation of The Institute for Social
Research and the social thinkers who
promoted the Idealism of Karl Marx.
Institute for Social Research
• The first Marxist oriented research school was in Europe
 Scholars at school developed a critical theory of society
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called kritisch Therorie which was designed for a specific
approach to interpreting Marxism
This approach sought to revise Marx’s. Critique of
capitalism and the idea that revolution was the best way
to change the social and political structure since his
death
The first president of the school was Carl Grundberg,
who wanted Scientific Marxism
Max Horkheimer, the second president, wanted a more
philosophical and less dogmatic approach which was
open to diverse intellectual currents
The dilemma that the first generation of Critical
Theorists had “to reconcile was Marx’s emancipatory
dream with the stark reality of modern society as
conceptualized by Max Weber” (pg. 232)
Institute for Social Research Cont.
• The school was restrained by Adolf Hitler and had
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its Jewish members exiled
School was relocated to Columbia university in
1934
The term Critical Theory was coined in 1937 (this
concept was initially a type of code which, while
differentiating is adherents from prevailing forms
of orthodoxy, also tended to veil radical comments
in an environment that was hostile to anything
remotely associated with Marxism)
In 1953 school had re-established in post
Germany where they were still subject to attack in
press and academia
G.W.F. Hegel (1931-)
 Hegel’s Phenomenology Of The Mind
gave two important influences on Critical
Theory. First, the critique which took
form of internal or immanent
examination of various sources of
deception, illusion, and distortion the
mind goes through on the journey to
absolute knowledge. Second, the belief
that human history expresses an
immanent telos, which is the liberation of
individual and species from a system of
constraints of the peoples own minds. A
key component to understanding Hegel
is that he assumes that humans are
driven by a common interest in freedom.
Georg (Gyorgy) Lukacs (18851971)
 His publication History and Class
Consciousness argued “that
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subjectivity is annihilated by
commodity production”
Blended Marx’s ideas of fetishism of
commodities with the belief that
rationality is penetrating more
spheres of modern life
It is said that Lukacs’ analyses of
alienation, commodity fetishism,
subjectivity, consciousness, and
spontaneous action are the
theoretical bridge to Critical theory
Max Horkheimer (1895-1973)
 Chair of social philosophy and then
director of The Institute for Social
Research
 Institute under his supervision was
oriented to developing social theory on an
interdisciplinary basis. He wanted this
theory to benefit from both the reflective
capacity of philosophy and the rigorous
procedures of the individual sciences
 Saw society as a totality that was
continuously restructuring itself which
resulted in the idea of social absolute or a
complete or perfect state of social
phenomenon being criticized
Horkheimer Cont.
 Endorsed the idea that there is no absolute truth of
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reality
Thought Manheim’s Sociology of knowledge to be
practically no less than theoretically wrongheaded and in
his essay “Traditional and Critical Theory” distinguishes
itself from Manheim and emphasizes a dialectical
representation of Marx’s critique of political economy
which was to be the analytical framework for critical
theory
Maintained the idea that there are no general criteria for
critical theory as a whole since it depended on a
repetition of events, Horkheimer said critical theory aims
to asses the breach between ideas and reality
Theodor Wisengaurd-Adorno
(1903-1969)
 Attempted to establish a critical
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social consciousness
Argued that objects exist for us
through conceptuality
In Negative Dialectics, he insisted
that the dialectic approach is not a
middle point between absolutism
and reality and was against the idea
that critical theory should merely
criticize one point of view in favor of
another
Defining Critical Theory
• There is no clear cut definition and the
term itself is confused with literary
criticism and other approaches to social
theory could be consider critical
 Critical theory offers a multidisciplinary
approach to society, is subject to change
but is rooted in the dialectical tradition of
Marx and Hegel
Critical Theory Cont.
 Argues to have six Marxian tenets associated with
critical theory which are:
1. We lie in a society dominated by the capitalist mode of production,
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and a society based on exchange principals pf value and profit
The commodity character of products is not simply determined by
their exchange value, but by their being abstractly exchanged
though labor
Capitalist society ensures fetishism reification
Capitalism is not a harmonious social world. Contradictions
between socially generated illusions and actuality lead to potential
crisis
The free market is progressively replaced by the oligarchies and
monopolistic mass production of standardized goods
The progressive rise on the organic composition of capital per
worker exacerbates the inherently unstable accumulation
processes. In order to sustain the process its protagonists utilize all
means of available including imperialist expansion
Hebert Marcuse (1898-1979)
 Background
• Born in Berlin to a prosperous Jewish family
• After serving in German Army in WWI, became associated
with the Social Democratic Party
• Left party in 1919 in protest over betrayal of the
proletariat
• Went on to study philosophy at the universities of Berlin
and Freiburg
• In December 1942 joined the Office of War Information as
a senior analyst in the Bureau of Intelligence
• Taught at Columbia and Harvard
• While there began research which led to writing of
Soviet Marxism
• Gained world status during 1960s as a philosopher, social
theorist, and political activist
• Career represents a constant attempt to examine, defend,
and reconstruct Marxist enterprise
Concepts and Contributions
 Critical Theory
• Stated that critical theory is a process of bringing
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consciousness potentialities that have emerged within the
maturing historical situation
Is a theory guided by political practice
Marcuse’s critical theory was influenced by Hegel and
Marx
Critical theory of society is essentially linked with
materialism
There are two basic elements linking materialism to
correct social theory:
1. Concern with human happiness
2. Conviction that it can be attained through a transformation of the
material conditions of existence
• Combining thoughts of Hegel and Marx, he concluded
that history is the arena is which humans seek the
freedom to manifest universal rationality
Concepts and Contributions Cont.
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Technological Rationality
An extension of Weber’s idea of rationalization
Defined term in his work, One-Dimensional Man
Argued that modern industrial society was dominated
by a technological rationality, with the working middle
class as its vocal supporter and defender
Concerned that the cost of material satisfaction was the
loss of individual freedoms and liberties
Makes two claims:
1. The workers of industrial society are suffering from false
consciousness
2. The workers should not be happy with material satisfaction but
should be striving for some unidentified nonmaterial satisfaction
Concepts and Contributions Cont.
The New Left
• Radical writings were a perfect match for his
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place in time
He was looked upon as the guru of the New Left
Gave lectures and advice to student radicals
Used the media to spread to word of Marxian
theory, revolutionary vision, and libertarian
socialism
Concepts and Contributions Cont.
 Revolution
• Entrenched in the Marxist tradition is the
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necessity for revolution
Argued that Marxian concept of revolution
implies continuity in change
Proposed a global revolution where capitalism is
replaced by socialism
The revolutionists that would challenge
corporate capitalism are concentrated at two
opposite poles of society:
1. The ghetto population
2. The middle class intelligentsia
Concepts and Contributions Cont.
Sexual Revolution
• In favor of the sexual revolution
• Against those who tried to impose sexual codes
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of conduct on others in the name of religion,
especially those who would invade the realm of
individual privacy
For Marcuse, sexual repression was more than
just another evil capitalism; it represented the
bourgeois concept of love
In Negations, he condemned the bourgeois era
as an attempt to isolate individuals from their
natural drives
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, he was one of
the most influential radical theorists
Jurgen Habermas (1929-)
 Background
• Born in Gummersbach in 1929
• Grew up during Nazi regime and WWII: Two
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influences that have a profound effect on his thinking
and writings
Studied philosophy at Gottingen, Zurich, and Bonn,
where he earned his doctorate in 1954
In 1964 he became a professor of philosophy at
Frankfurt
Perhaps most well known of second generation of
critical theorists
He was influenced by the works of Marx, Weber, and
the early members of the Frankfurt School
Writings are steeped in the German tradition
Concepts and Contributions
 Critical Theory
• In his article “The Tasks of a Critical Theory” he stated that
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the work of the Institute for Social Research was basically
dominated by six themes:
The Forms of Integration in Postliberal Societies: Whether in
a democracy or totalitarian regimes
Gamily Socialization and Ego Development: The structural
change of the bourgeois nuclear family and the weakening of
the authoritarian position of the father
Mass Media and Mass Culture: The development of a culture
industry for the manipulative control of consciousness
The Social Psychology behind Cessation of Protest: Political
consciousness of workers and employees
The Theory of Art: The arts as the preferred object of an
ideology
The Critique of Positivisim and Science: Science as a tool of
the bourgeoisie
Concepts and Contributions
Critical Theory Cont.
• His critical theory was inspired by classical Greek
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and German philosophy, which stressed the
inseparability of truth and virtue, of facts and
values, and of theory and practice
Wanted a society where people are free to
assemble and communicate openly
Communication and understanding of language
are the keys to understanding and
comprehending knowledge
Described the ideal speech situation as one that
is un-coerced, free for all people, and in which
all people are treated equally
Concepts and Contributions Cont.
 Communication Theory
• Concerned with reformulating Marxian theory in the light of
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twentieth-century social changes
Expands Marx’s conception of humanity by adding language
to work as a distinct feature of species-being
To escape the philosophical historical materialism of Marxist
thought, he proposed that a theory cannot be tied to
concrete ideals of human life
Instead, it must orient itself to the range of learning
processes that are opened at any given time
The use of language as a significant aspect of human
development led Habermas to concentrate on how
undistorted communication might lay the foundation for the
emancipation of individuals
Concepts and Contribtions
Communication Theory Cont.
• Distorted communication is similar to Marx’s
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false consciousness
Use of undistorted communication reveals the
influence of Freudian psychoanalysis on his
communication theory
Argued that individual’s life worlds are influenced
by constant interaction with others and with
society’s social structures
Concepts and Contributions Cont.
 Rationality and Modernity
• Critical of Western industrial democracies for their reduction of
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the human world to some form of economic efficiency
Believed that rationality-the ability to think logically and
analytically-is more than a strategic calculation of how to
achieve some chosen end; it is a form of communicative action
Rational behavior serves the individual’s best interest and is a
key ingredient in understanding others during social behavior
Ideas of rationality led him to explain modernity
The concepts of rationality and modernity come together in his
examination of the life world
Also critical of scientism-identifying knowledge with sciencebecause of its relation to positivism
Believed that critical theory should be a critique of knowledge,
opposed positivism because it attempted to objective
knowledge
Concepts and Contributions Cont.
Democracy
• Democracy must be seen first and foremost as a
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process that results when certain kind of social
interaction prevails
Democracy should be seen as a particular way by
which citizens make collective and rational decisions
Envisioned a deliberate democracy where a
government’s laws and institutions would be a
reflection of free and open public discussion
According to Habermas, modern democracies of the
West are dominated by political legitimation
Douglas Kellner (1943-)
Background
• Born in 1943
• Received his Ph.D. from Columbia
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University in 1973
Known for his systematic and critical
review of television in the U.S.
He believes that the media, television
in particular, have long served the
interests of the powerful
Concepts and Contributions
 Critical Theory
• Kellner’s critical theory is based on the premise that we
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have not moved into a postmodern, or postindustrial age,
but rather that capitalism continues to reign supreme, as it
did in the heyday of critical theory.
Kellner described technocapitalism as a capitalist society
structured so that technical and scientific knowledge,
automation, computers, and advanced technology play such
a significant role in the process of production that they
parallel the role of human labor power in early capitalism.
Kellner does not endeavor to develop a full-scale theory of
techno-capitalism. His main point is that although it has
changed dramatically, capitalism remains in the
contemporary world
Concepts and Contributions Cont.
 Media and Culture
• Kellner’s ideas on the effect of media on culture are influenced by the
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world of Baudrillard. His theory of a new, postmodern society rests on a
key assumption that the media constitute a new realm of experience and
a new stage of history and type of society
Kellner provided statistics that demonstrate how prevalent television is in
contemporary society: “In excess of 750 million TV sets in more than
160 countries are watched by 2.5 billion people per day. Nearly every
home in the U.S. has a TV set that is turned on for more than 7 hours
per day
He was concerned that television is a threat to democracy
Believes that television contributes to social integration and implies that
democratized media could be the basis for a revitalized public sphere.
Concluded that television has worked increasingly to further
conservative hegemony. In so doing, television has helped produce a
crisis in democracy
The advent of cable television in the 1970’s was directly responsible for
the increase in public access programs, channels for government, and
educational programming
Concepts and Contributions Cont.
Postmodernism
• Postmodern thought extends to many disciplines,
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most notably art, but has also crept into
sociological discourse since the mid-1980s
Kellner noted that the primary methods of
postmodernism are deconstruction, reversal, and
inversion. This implies that the theorist must
question the taken-for-granted world, the rules of
the game, and the claims to authority found in a
society. Kellner viewed postmodernism as a new
stage of society, a break with the previous social
order
The postmodern attitude is reflected in
expressionist art
Relevancy
• Critical theory is generally about the role of power in
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social relations
Critical theory has existed since the formation of the
Institute for Social Research at Frankfurt University in
1923
Contemporary critical theorists have increasingly
turned their attention to the media and other forms of
entertainment in their examination of modern culture
Critical theory cannot be characterized by a particular
set of methodological techniques and theoretical
propositions; however, it is still a coherent approach to
the social world that is separate from other types of
sociology and Marxism
Criticisms of Critical Theory
• The first criticism of critical theory is that it reproduces idealist
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(utopian) positions
The second criticism is that critical theory shows undue concern
about philosophical and theoretical problems
The third criticism of critical theory is its preoccupation with
negativity
The fourth criticism of critical theory is the claim that it
developed from a purely academic setting and thus was
isolated from working-class politics (add to this, the fact that
Marx’s conception of the working class as a revolutionary force
is untrue) and became increasingly embroiled in abstract issues
and “second-order” discourse
The fifth criticism leveled against critical theory is that it is a
historical (critical theorists have examined a variety of events
without paying much attention to their historical and
comparative contexts)
Criticisms of Critical Theory Cont.
• Postmodern critical theory is the first narrative to pose a
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possible utopian future not as a determinate outcome of
nature-like social laws but rather as one conceivable discursive
accomplishment among many
Critical theory can either be a museum piece or a living medium
of political self-expression (Agger, 1976:19)
Critical theory addresses the relations among schooling,
education, culture, society, economy, and governance
Critical theory has also been applied to issues related to crime
and delinquency
In addition , critical theory draws its orientation from a broad
range of disciplines, including linguistics, psychology, sociology,
philosophy, and Marxism” (Groves and Sampson, 1986:538)