Communication, Identity and
Gender
1
Overview
• Identity is an area of intercultural communication studies that
focuses on the ways in which our identities are initially
imagined and constructed and how these identities are
subsequently reinforced and reinvented.
• There are part of our identity over which we have little or no
control – gender, sexual orientation, skin colour, place of birth.
• To varying extents, we do have some control over other parts,
such as language we speak, religion we profess or the denial
of any faith and the country and nation we affirm
• The meanings we associate with these aspects of identities
are influenced by schools, media, and daily encounters with
others.
• In the same context, one identity may be in the forefront. Eg
at work our professional identity may be how others think of
us and we think of ourselves at time.
2
Overview on Gender and
Communication
• There are two communication theories that help situate gender and
communication.
• First, communication is epistemic, that is communication is the
medium to know things. Eg, it is through scientific discourse that
people came to view universe as earth-centred
• Second, communication is axiological, that is communication is
value-laden. Virtually all communication theorists agree that
language is subjective.
• All communications make claims and take stances.
• Any use of communication exhibits attitude that implies an act and
all human actions have moral consequences
• The significance of communication practice in shaping our lives is
no less important in the arena of gender and communication.
• In fact, communication is thought to be the process by which we
learn to be male or female or other.
3
Gender and Communication
• First, in the way they are taught to use the language and
second in the way, general language usage treats them.
• Eg woman reflects her role in the social order by adopting
linguistic practices such as using tag question, qualifiers to
soften their message
• Likewise, traditionally, women were identified by their
association with men and occupational titles
communicated which jobs were for man and woman.
• Today, society still retains a tendency to imply that
maleness. Eg using the word woman doctor, lady president,
chairman for man but chairperson for lady
• What we are taught in gender reflects in our language
usage.
4
Gender makes Difference in Communication
When a man says it:
When a woman says it
•
•
•
•
• She’s bossy or
aggressive.
• She’s too ambitious.
• She’s nosy.
• She’s a gossip.
• She’s a tattletale.
He’s showing leadership.
He’s going places.
He’s concerned.
He’s keeping people in
the loop.
• He’s reporting
5
Globalisation and Identity
• How far and in what ways would you say your
sense of your own identity has been affected
by global trends, the flow of good, people and
images around the world, and the increasing
possibilities available for global
communication?
6
Probable Answers
• The cultural supermarket bears some
resemblance to its metaphorical root, the
material supermarket.
• Just as the material supermarket has been
transformed to the scope of its goods in recent
years, so too has the cultural supermarket……due
to TV, Internet and computers.
• Eg pizzas from America, Lasagna from Italy, Coke
has gone international McDonalisation culture
etc
7
Probable Answers
• The internet has opened up previously
unimagined possibilities for communication
between individuals and global communities.
• Such communication has had an impact upon
how we view ourselves and others, and has
forced a re-evaluation of what communication
can mean……….w.r.t identity
• No longer do we dwell within the boundaries of
single geographically contained community, a
region, an ethnicity or even a culture.
8
Sexism & Language
governor – governess
master – mistress
patron – matron
sir – madam
bachelor – Spinster
brothers & sisters
husband & wife
boys & girls
hostess & host
queen & king
Eve & Adam
9
Sexism & Language
Generic He/Man
• policeman
• spokesman
• manpower
• Social Man
• mankind
• workman’s compensation
• “Man the oars”
• he, him, his
10
• Connotations:
• Words associated with men appear on the left, those
with women on the right. What does each word
connote to you?
• Power, authority, positively valued while for women…..
• What did spinster mean originally? Semantic derogation
over time?
• (Semantic – study of words and phrases)
• (derogation – to make something less important)
• Word becomes associated with women often acquires
semantic characteristics congruent with social
stereotypes and evaluations – women as a group
11
What do these connotations say about the status of women in
society?
Generally men associated with positive things, women negative things?
“Shrew” from the name of a small, but vicious, animal is defined in most
dictionaries as “an ill-tempered scolding woman.”
A shrewd businessman has different connotation, “clever, discerning
awareness” .
Patron of the arts vs a matron who supervises a public institution or simply an
old woman.
Would you rather be an old master (someone who has achieved consummate
ability in your field) or an old mistress
12
Word Pairs
• Read each word pair. What if you reverse them? Sound incorrect,
awkward?
• Traditionally placing the female term after the male term signifies
something? Status of women? “ the supreme Being…is in
languages .Masculine, in as much as the masculine Sex is the
superior and more excellent” (quoted in Baron, 1986)
• Linguistic Sexism is the larger problem of semantic derogation
• Linguistic sexism – ways in which a language devalues members
of one sex (women), defining women’s “place” in society
unequally & ignoring women.
• Example: titles of respect for men, Mr which reveals nothing
about relationship to women. While women being addressed as
Miss or Mrs – define women in terms of their relationships to men.
Husband & wife having PhDs -commonly addressed as Dr & Mrs.
How is a woman’s identity subsumed?
• (Subsumed – generally included in a category without having an
identity of its own)
13
Generic He/Man
• What image comes to your mind when reading the
words?
• Do you visualize women, women and men together,
or men alone? Only men
• “he/man” language frequently results in “cognitive
confusion” or misunderstanding
• How can sexist language be changed? Individuals (you
& me), organizations
• Ms for Miss & Mrs, Alternating the order of feminine
& masculine nouns and pronouns
• Police officer, spokesperson, businessperson
14
Do Women & Men Speak Different Language
• Deborah Tannen (1990,1994 ) argues women & men are of
different speech communities
• Different communication styles and goals.
• Women & men speak different genderlects just as people from
cultures speak different dialects.
• Women speak & hear a language of intimacy & connection.
• Men uses language of status & independence.
• Therefore, when women & men converse, the conversations often
become product of two different cultures resulting in
misunderstanding.
• Some studies using large sample found few communication
differences among gender, but both women & men
communication patterns and styles are influenced by situational
factors: sex of the receiver, the context, the perceived status of
both speaker and receiver.
15
Do Women & Men Speak Different
Language
• Women tend to avert their eyes when stared at
by men, but they also smile and laugh more
than men whether they are happy or not, a
gesture viewed as both social and submissive.
• Research on same-sex conversation showed that
in all female groups, women talk more than men
do in all male groups.
• Men prefer to talk more about sports, work;
women prefer to indulge more about personal
topics (Bischoping, 1993).
16
Do Women & Men Speak Different
Language
• Women conversations are less individualistic and more
dynamic than men’s conversation in same-sex
interaction. Women enlarge on and acknowledge one
another’s contributions, respond to conversationalist’s
attempts to introduce topics.
Although interruptions are frequent in women’s
conversations, these are typically supportive rather
than aggressive
Women’s conversations are being stereotyped as
gossiping whereas men’s conversations with another
are regarded as more serious and important
17
Do Women & Men Speak Different
Language
• Would these negative traits and consequences
of communication differences associated
exclusively with women have to do with men
having greater power to define acceptable
standards of communication?
• Obviously, women’s communications are
considered not only different from men’s, but
also typically inferior (Lakoff, 1990)
18
Gender and Communication
• Gender has an influence on communication
• Gender is a product of communication
• Eg, from early age, males and females are taught different
linguistic practices.
• Communication behaviours that are acceptable for boys,
may be considered completely inappropriate for girls.
• Communication practices not reflect notions about gender,
but they also create cultural concepts of gender.
• Hence research reveals that woman experience linguistic
discrimination 2 ways
19
Gender and Communication
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Women and Men are different – but
averages are not absolutes
• Many of the difficulties we experience
arise from misunderstandings
• Knowing about the roots and causes of
our misunderstandings may help us to
be more successful in our relationships
with co-workers, clients, and at home
20
Gender and Communication
• Women are the intimacy experts
• BUT
• May have difficulty dealing with negative
feelings
• • Men are skilled at dealing with conflict
• BUT
• May have difficulty with expressiveness
21
Gender and Communication
•
Differing features of conversational style
– Amount of talk
• Mixed groups-men talk more especially in formal & public contexts
• Same sex groups- amt. talk equal
– Interruptions (Zimmerman & West)
• Men interrupt women more than vice versa
– Conversational support (Fishman)
• Women gave more conversational support than men leaving more
opportunities for men’s stories to get expanded upon.
– Tentativeness (Lackoff, 1975, Holmes, 1995)
• Women use more hedges and tag questions,
– Compliments (Metshire, et. al., 2001)
• Women pay and receive more compliments
– Topic of talk (Coates, Tannen)
• Women speak and hear a language of connection and intimacy
(Tannen), Personal Topics (Coates)
• Men speak and hear a language of status and independence (Tannen),
Non-personal Topics (Coates)
What are your mixed-gender miscommunication experiences?
22
Stereotypes: Men are…
•
•
•
•
•
•
Competitive
– Unsentimental
– Analytical
– Task-focused
– Aggressive
– Silent, etc
23
Stereotypes: Women are…
•
•
•
•
•
•
Nurturing
– Emotional
– Intuitive
– Supportive
– Passive
– Talkative, etc.
24
Stereotypes: Women are…
•
•
•
•
•
•
Girls / Women
– Face to face
– Communication is central
– Talk is expressive
– Discuss the dynamics of the relationship
– Broader in scope
25
Stereotypes: Men are…
•
•
•
•
•
•
Boys / Men
– Side by side
– Activities are central
– Talk is topic focused
– Relationship value is assumed
– More limited in scope
26
Gender Communication as
Intercultural Communication
• The constituents of intercultural communication as identified by scholars
such as Porter, Samovar and Pennington are points at which significant
differences may occur in communication patterns, habits and traditions
across cultures.
• Occurrence of differences at these points suggest we are dealing with
intercultural communication
• Differences in world view, language usage between genders are three
points of difference which suggest that gender communication is a form of
intercultural communication
• Although explanations vary widely, many feminist scholars have described
the female worldview as significantly different from the male worldview.
• Female identity revolves around interconnectedness and relationship.
• Male identity stresses on separation and independence
• Many feminist scholars, in examining the current and historic roles of
women in religion, have resurrected religios practices which predate
27
Gender Communication as
Intercultural Communication
• It is difficult to discuss differences in worldview
without talking about languages since our view of the
world is expressed in language and symbol system.
• Communication between man and women can be like
cross cultural communication, prey to a clash of
conversational style.
• This is due to differences in the way man and woman
generally look at the world
• Therefore it is no coincidence that women see talk as
the essence of a relationship while men use talk to
exert control, preserve independence and enhance
status
28
Is the Situation Changing ?
• Some evidence the situation may be changing.
• Berryman-Fink (1994)-no difference in how
women & men (sups, peers, or subordinates)
rated the communication competency of
women in the work place.
• In self-evaluations, women rated their
communication competency lower than others
rated men.
• Women need to develop greater self confidence
in certain communication settings.
29
Is the Situation Changing ?
On listening reactions, few differences between
female and male listeners except female gave
more “active understanding” responses (explicit
acknowledgment of the speaker’s feelings) when
the speaker was a female friend.
Is communication an interactive process affected by
a variety of factors of which gender is only one?
Many researchers observed gender inequality
characterizes much daily communication,
reflecting differences in men’s and women’s life
experiences, social status, power (Henley et al.,
1985)
30
Guidelines for Improving
Communication Between Genders
• Six stumbling blocks in inter-cultural
communication according to Barna:
1. Assumed similarity
2. Language
3. Non-verbal misinterpretations
4. Pre-conceptions and stereotypes
5. Tendency to evaluate
6. High anxiety
31
Guidelines for Improving
Communication Between Genders
• The last stumbling block occurs when people are completely separated
from their own culture and it usually does not apply to gender
communication except perhaps in overtly abusive situations or highly sexsegregated societies.
• Awareness about the first five stumbling block can be useful in improving
gender communication
• Eg by learning to assume that man and woman are not the same, we can
become more sensitive to the fact that man and woman goals and values
are different and their verbal and non-verbal language will vary as well
• Conversely, awareness of societal preconceptions and stereotypes which
portray the other sex as ‘different’ and ‘opposite’ can help to avoid such
stereotypes., i.e, although there may be cultural differences between the
sexes, it is not productive to assume that all men love sport anymore than
it is constructive to assume that all Irish consume alcohol excessively
32
Guidelines for Improving
Communication Between Genders
• The tendency to evaluate another’s culture as inferior
to our own is perhaps the most difficult stumbling
block to avoid, especially when applying it to gender
communication.
• So, instead of becoming annoyed by a male’s
aggressive communication style, we should recognise
that it is a style which is as much a part of his identity
as an ethnic cuisine or a religious tradition is part of a
culture.
• The task in improving intercultural communication is
awareness and respect rather than evaluation.
33