(11.1) CHAPTER17, EGYPT: BETWEEN
SECULARISM AND ISLAMISM
The beginnings of modernization and secularization in the 19th
century.
Reformism, secularism, and Islamism in the 20th century.
Stand-off between secularism and Islamism in the late 20th
century, violent Islamism
Map of Egypt
Population growth (Approximate figures)
1800
1900
1950
1977
1985
2008
2.5-3 million
10 million
20 million
40 million
50 million
80 million
Food production has not kept up with this
1517-1798
1798-1801
1805-1849
1863-71
1875
1881-2
1882-1922
1919
1922-1952
1952
70)
1967
19701990s
Mamluke rule under Ottoman Empire
French in Egypt
Muhammad Ali, “the great modernizer”
Khedive Isma‘il, westernizer
European control of finances
‘Urabi revolt
British occupation
Nationalist movement inspired by Sa‘d Zaghlul
Monarchy
Revolution, Republic, Abdel Nasser president (1954Defeat by Israel in “Six Day War”
Post-Nasser period. Anwar Sadat (1970-81), Husni
Mubarak (1981-)
Islamist violence and harsh reprisals
Mamluke period
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Political anarchy
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"We are all pillagers; you pillage, and [he] pillages, and I
pillage too." (One Mamluke to another, Jabarti)
Economic activity
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Egypt begins to export raw materials to/import finished
products from Europe
Sufi ṭarīqas flourish
 ‘Ulamā’ flourish
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Mediate between rulers and people
 Considerable land in awqāf
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Napoleon and the French
Destroyed Mamluke power
 Announced he would grant liberty and equality,
respect Islam
 Brought scientists and scholars
 Formed council of ‘ulamā’
 People revolted, put down
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Al-Jabarti on the French incursion:
“The year 1213 (1798-9) was the first of many years of great battles
and momentous events, of calamitous occurrences . . . of
destruction everywhere and disasters unremitting. ‘And your Lord did
not destroy the cities unjustly when their inhabitants were acting
righteously.’ (Qur’an 11:117)”
“. . . Many of the mob united and proclaimed jihad and brought their
hidden weapons of war and resistance . . . They were shouting 'God
save Islam'. . . . when the French learned of their gathering, . . .[they]
shelled the quarters that surrounded al-Azhar . . . . [Some people] ran
away . . . [and some] went on fighting until their gun powder was
exhausted . . . . (October, 1798. Messiri 29, wording modified.)
”They [the French scholars] were great scholars and loved the
sciences, especially mathematics and philology. They applied
themselves day and night to learning the Arabic language and
conversation.” ( In Kritzek, 20)
Muhammad Ali and successors
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Destruction of Mamluk power; leaders slaughtered in 1811
Broke independent power of ‘ulamā’; exiled some
Confiscated awqāf , weakening ‘ulamā’ instititions
Direct taxation replaces tax farming (weakens ‘ulamā’)
Peasant conscription
Settled Bedouin
Beginnings of state education (1833-)
Some control/reform of Sufi movement
Agricultural revolution, cash crops (e.g. cotton), private ownership,
new landowning elite
Secularization of law (see below)
Beginning of new occupations: journalists, engineers, lawyers,
doctors, etc., (outside ‘ulama’/sufi context or control).
Native Egyptians gain positions of importance (Arabic required for
official correspondence in 1858; Turkish elite still strong till 1950s,
however)
(Partial) Secularisation of Law
1805- Muhammad Ali did not openly reject Shari‘a but ignored advice
of ‘ulama’
1850 Ottoman commercial code based on French Code Napoleon
applied in Egypt
1874 Egypt gains juridical autonomy within Ottoman Empire
1875/1883 Civil Codes, drawn mainly from Code Napoleon)
1875 Penal Cole, largely French.
1875- Dual/tripartite system of courts
 Mixed Courts (1875) cases involving foreigners;
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influential example for others, e.g. lawyers allowed there first
Ahli Courts (1883) cases under penal and commercial laws
Shari'ah Courts: personal status cases (marriage, divorce, etc).
Secularisation of Law, ctd
1937 New criminal code, based largely on Italian law
1939 New civil code, some Shari‘a law included
1956 Abolition of separate Shari'ah courts; personal
status law still applied but Ulama independence further
decreased
1970- Pressures for more recognition of Shari'a content in
laws and judicial decisions.
1972 Constitution: "The principles of the Islamic Shari‘ah
are a principle source of legislation."
1980 Constitution: "The principles of the Islamic Shari‘ah
are the principle source of legislation."
(Partial) Secularisation of Education
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Decline in traditional Madrasas due to fewer resources
Muhammad Ali’s specialist schools
Primary schools from 1833, 30 by 1878
Foreign sponsored schools: 146 by 1878 (mostly for non-Muslims)
Dar al-‘Ulum, 1872
Efforts to reform Azhar, from 1872.
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Some improvement of administrative structure
Teaching methods not changed
University (private) founded 1908, government run from 1925
Rapid growth of state schools from 1919; free compulsory education
for all (in theory) from 1925
Azhar reformed, made part of the state system, 1961
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Secular faculties added: e.g. Engineering, Medicine
Al-Azhar, 1977
Sufis: Reform and (some) regulation
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In early 19th virtually all Egyptian Muslims connected with a tariqa.
In 1812 Muhammad Ali put Bakri family in limited control of tariqas;
regulations for tariqas promulgated beginning 1895; in the 20th
century the High Council of Sufi Tariqas was formed.
In 1974 c. 64 of c. 130 tariqas were affiliated with the Council.
Reforms from the later 19th century saw a decrease in the more
dramatic manifestations, e.g. dawsa
Since 1970 tariqas have continued to be popular and have shared in
the Islamic “resurgence”.
A number of walis from the 1960s on have been recognized. Ahmad
Radwan (1895-1967) said to have advised Abdel Nasser.
Sufi thinking influences many who are not Sufis.
In the 1980s estimates ran from 3 million members to half the
population having some connection with a tariqa.
Tanta mawlid
Maulid of Ahmad al-Badawi at Tanta (1977). Large field where tariqas and other groups
provide hospitality. Lighted tent belongs to the municipal government.
Tanta mawlid. Procession with the Shaykh of the Ahmadiyya tariqa.
Muhammad ‘Abduh
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Disciple of al-Afghani and supporter of ‘Urabi; later
cooperated with British
Judge, member of Legislative Council (Advisory), member of
Administrative Council of al-Azhar, Mufti of Egypt
Worked for administrative reforms of Azhar
Modernist fatwas as Mufti
Some views:
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Salafi: only Qur‘an and sound Sunna must be followed
Non-mutawātir ḥadīth are not obligatory
Need not accept miracles of walis
Stress human capacity, validity of reason
Islam is a rational religion
‘Abduh ctd
[Abduh held a] “view of a reformed Islam as a
system of social discipline and instruction with
which an intellectual and political elite would
organise the country's 'political education' and
thus assure its stability and its evolution." (T.
Mitchell,125)
Some early 20th century figures
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Mustafa Kamil (1908): urged immediate independence
(‘Abduh favored gradualism)
Qasim Amin (1865-1908): Liberation of Women (1899)
The New Woman (1901)
Sa‘d Zaghlul (1857-1927): Leader of independence
movement
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Cooperation of Copts and Muslims in this movement
“Religion is for God but the fatherland is for all” (Binder 271)
Hoda Sha‘rawi: founds Egyptian Feminist Union and
removes her veil (1923)
Highpoint of Secularist ideological confidence: 1920s-30s
‘Ali ‘Abd al-Rāziq (1888–1966), Islam and the Bases of Government
Some points:
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Caliphate is not clearly stipulated in the Qur’an or the Sunna,
So called ijmā‘ on it was compelled and never unanimous.
Welfare of the community does not require a particular form of
government. Caliphate has often been oppressive.
Government was not an essential part of Muhammad’s mission.
His governmental activities were only to protect his preaching.
Generally, a prophet’s authority is spiritual not material (e.g. Jesus).
Muhammad’s mission was to unify humankind; not possible
politically.
Secularism ctd
Abd al-Raziq,
"I feel that I am, first of all, an Egyptian, an Arab,
an Oriental, and, with the permission of our
reverend religious leaders - also a Moslem.'
(Address Nov. 24, 1927,quoted by Gibb)
Secularism ctd.
“We Egyptians must not assume the existence of intellectual differences, weak
or strong, between the Europeans and ourselves or infer that the East
mentioned by Kipling in his famous verse "East is East and West is West,
and never the twain shall meet" applies to us or our country. [Khedive]
Isma‘il's statement that Egypt is a part of Europe should not be regarded as
some kind of boast or exaggeration, since our country has always been a
part of Europe as far as intellectual and cultural life is concerned, in all its
forms and branches . . . .
“In order to become equal partners in civilization with the Europeans, we must
literally and forthrightly do everything that they do; we must share with them
the present civilization, with all its pleasant and unpleasant sides, and not
content ourselves with words or mere gestures.”
Taha Hussein, The Future of Culture in Egypt (1938)
Secularism ctd.
Secularism with Muslim and Arab orientation
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Biographies of Muhammad and other early figures:
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e.g. Al-Aqqad, The Genius of Muhammad, The Genius of Imam
‘Ali, The Genius of Mu‘awiya, The Life of Christ, etc.
Islam as turāth (heritage)
"The term turāth is not so simple and one-sided in its
meaning in the contemporary ideological context of the Arab
countries. The term turāth provides a way of attaching
oneself to the religious heritiage of Islam without declaring
oneself a true believer; it is a ground on which secularists
and religionists may meet, but not without many
opportunities for misunderstanding and disagreement."
(Binder, 281)
Islamism: The Muslim Brothers (Al-Ikhwān al-Muslimūn)
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Founded 1928 by Hasan al-Banna (1906-49)
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Activist, socially oriented, mass organization
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Banna was a school teacher, graduate of Dar al-‘Ulum, had Sufi
connection
At first educational, social; later politically active
Social base: lower middle class.
Strong leadership structure (Sufi model? Fascist model?)
Youth wing, women’s activities, unions, factories, etc
By late '40's a major contender for power
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Secret Apparatus; bombings, etc.
Banned; Assassination of prime minister, 1948; Banna assassinated,
1949; Legal again 1950-1
Supported Free Officers’ govt 1952-3.
Government bans, imprisons many 1954
“The Muslim Brothers do not demand power for themselves; if
they find anyone capable of carrying this burden and of
fulfilling the trust of government in accordance with a
program based on Islam and the Qur’an, then they will be his
soldiers, supporters, and helpers. But if they do not find such
a man, then power is included in their program and they
would strive to seize it from the hands of any government
that does not fulfil Allah’s commands.” (Hasan al-Banna, in
Sharabi, 110)
“The Arabs are the core and guardians of Islam . . . . Arab unity
is an essential prerequisite for the restoration of Islam’s
glory . . . .” (ibid.)
“Few will dispute the claim that Nasserism significantly changed
Egyptian society. By uprooting the old landed class and the foreign
community, effecting a modest redistribution of their property, and
extending educational opportunity to all Egyptians, Nasserism
destroyed he rigid class structure that separated pasha from
peasant, hastened a transition to industrialism, and gave Egypt
sovereignty over its resources. . . . Pan-Arabism, nonalignment, and
anti-imperialism changed the way Egyptians looked at themselves
and their neighbours.” (Gordon, 197-8)
Our entire world had gone through the trauma of the June war; now it
was emerging from the initial daze of defeat . . . . The general
consent was that we had been living through the biggest lie in our
entire lives. . . . My beliefs in everything were completely shattered. I
had the feeling that I’d lost everything. (Character in Karnak by Najib
Mahfouz)
Mahmud Shaltut (Rector of al-Azhar)
Summary of the Islamic Principles of Government (selected)
1. Sovereignty: belongs to God alone because He is the creator and owner;
within each people it belongs to the people themselves after God who has
made them khalīfas (cf. Qur’an 2:30) within their country.
3. The ruler: is an agent of the nation (umma); he has no sovereignty over it but
rather it is his master and he is its trustworthy servant.
4. Consultation (shūrā): is the basis of government; any government which is
not based on consultation is not legitimate.
5. Collective solidarity: all individuals have collective responsibility for their
welfare and the welfare of religion and state.
7. Removal of the khalīfa: by the nation if he is unjust and oppressive and his
tyranny becomes evident, . . . if he refuses to step down he may be removed
by force even if this leads to warfare and armed revolt, if the nation sees
this to be in its interest.
Arab Nationalism, An Extreme Statement: Ibrahim
Jum‘a (1960)
"Arab nationalism was an existing reality before the
emergence of Islam . . . achieved its completed
form with the creation of the Arab state by Islam .
. . .the genuine Arab code of morality graced and
systematized by a divine message, restored dignity
to mankind. . . . . Arab nationalism derived its
existence from the very depths of the Arab spirit
and the nature of Arab life. It is furthermore, a
body of truths that transcend all discussion and
argument . . . . Arab nationalism is a
comprehensive, deeply ingrained faith . . . . (Karpat
48-49)
Anti Nationalism, An Extreme Position: Muhammad
al-Ghazzali (1953)
“Nationalism has only lost for us our Islamic unity
and enabled Christians and the Zionist
imperialism to rob us of our most sacred
rights. . . . The truth is that the growth of
nationalism, racism and infidel patriotism is a loss
of Islamic faith as well as a loss of Islamic rule.
The revival of such evil fanaticism is a plot against
God’s religion – a return to the first Jahiliyya with
all its injustice and crime” (Browers, 70-1, wording
modified)
Sayyid Qutb (1906-66)
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Till 1948, secularist, colleague of Aqqad, Taha Husayn
et al.
From 1948 Islamist, joined Muslim Brothers in 1950s
Imprisoned 1954, became very radical, martyred 1966.
Radical stage:
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Jāhiliyya: actively anti-Islamic, all so-called Muslim
governments are jāhilī.
Jihād: revolutionary action after preparation is the answer.
Very influential for later radicals
“The Muslim society comes into existence only when
individuals or groups of people turn from serving
something other than God . . . to serving God alone with
no associate and when these groups decide to organize
their life on the basis of this service. At that point there
takes place a new birth of a new society, which splits off
from the old jāhilī society and confronts it with a new
creed and . . . a new order of life . . . usually the jāhilī
society wages relentless war, both against the vanguard
of this society . . . and against this society itself when it
has actually been established. . . .” (Qutb, Milestones)
After Abdel Nasser: Resurgence
Anwar al-Sadat (president 1970-81)
 “Resurgence” of Islam in society
 “Government of science and religion”,“Believer President”
 1972 Constitution: "The principles of the Islamic Shari‘a are
a (the, 1980) principle source of legislation."
 Encouraged Islamist groups to counter the left.
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Muslim Brothers, released from prison or return from exile,
allowed to function but not recognized (1971-)
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now older, some wealthier, more conservative, gradualist
concentrate on da‘wa
sporadic harassment or persecution
Islamic Student groups, Jama‘āt Islamiyya (1972-1979, then
banned)
Anwar al-Sadat ctd.
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Extremist groups (roots in prison experience)
“Military Academy group”, failed putsch 1974
 “Takfir wa-al-Hijra” (Jama‘at al-Muslimin): very
separatist: all of society is kāfir. (Other groups say on
leadership is kāfir)
 Islamic Group (Jamā‘a Islāmiyya)
 Jihad Organization. Faraj, The Forgotten Obligation
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Rapproachment with Israel (1977-), crackdown on
opposition;
 Sadat assassinated by Jihad member, 1981
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Mubarak: balance secularist and Islamist
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People may call for radical Islamization but not threaten the political
system.
Claims made that Egyptian law is 70-90% consistent with Shari‘a
Muslim Brothers are the strongest opposition group
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Participate in most elections 1984-2005 (gained over 20% of
parliamentary seats in 2005)
Brothers and other Islamists take control of professional syndicates
(1987-92); government acts against this; Islamists still represented
on governing boards
Violence by Islamic Group and Jihad Organization 1990s
Controversy over Hamid Abu Zayd (1993-)
Formation of Wasat party by members of Muslim Brothers (1996),
more moderate; registration as a political party rejected
Kifaya movement (2004); secular but some Islamists involved.
Wasat 2006
“Although the party seeks to ‘make the Shari‘a part of the
very fabric of daily life,’ they do not do not view Islamic
law as a fixed set of rules and guidelines to be applied.
Rather, they see it as ‘an authoritative framework of
values and standards’ articulated through ‘human
interpretations.’ The task, they argue, ‘is to select
interpretations of Islamic law which contribute towards,
rather than obstruct, the development of society’”
“The platform asserts that there exists a ‘common human
civilization’ and calls for recognition of ‘the cooperation,
mutual knowledge and complementarity of all cultures’”
(Browers, quotes are from Wasat platform.)