Red Cross in
Imperial China
1904-1912
9/13/2012
By: Yannan (Lukia) Li
Email: li34@umail.iu.edu
International Red Cross
• A production of the first Geneva Convention, 1863:
for the Amelioration of the Condition of the
Wounded in Armies in the Field.
• On August 22, 1864, representatives of 12 states and
kingdoms signed the convention.
• The convention established legally binding rules
guaranteeing neutrality and protection for
wounded soldiers, field medical personnel, and
specific humanitarian institutions in an armed
conflict.
International Red Cross
• Two specific requirements for the recognition by the
International Committee:
o The national government of the respective country
must be a state party to the Geneva Convention.
o The national society must be recognized by its own
national government as a relief society according
to the convention.
- national and international
A Question in Mind…
• How did Chinese Red Cross society, a
nongovernmental, voluntary organization with a
national focus and an international identification, fit
into the late Qing society?
o Why it burgeoned in the late Qing dynasty? And why Red Cross Society?
o How was it fitted into the imperial system? How did the public and private
sectors react to it?
Primary Sources
• Correspondences and news articles published on
Shunbao
• Achieved imperial orders
Late Qing
• 1861: Emperor Tongzhi and Self-strengthening
Movement
• 1861: Empress Dowager Cixi in power
• 1901-1911: Late Qing reform
o
o
o
o
o
Government
Military
Education system
Political system
Failure:
• weak financial conditions
• social and cultural conservatism
• lack of coordination
• foreign economic exploitation and foreign imperialism
• 1905: termination of national examination system
• 1908: death of Cixi and Guangxu Emperor; Puyi
ascended the throne
• April, 1911: General Yuan Shikai in power
• October, 1911: Xinhai Revolution, creation of the
Republic of China, capital in Nanjing with Sun Yatsen as its provisional head.
• 1912: Empress Dowager Longyu abdicated Puyi
The Fall of Qing
• Mass civil disorders:
- 1850-1864: The Taiping Rebellion
- 1899-1901: The Boxer Uprising
Wars and unequal treaties
1839-1842: The First Opium War - Treaty of Nanjing
1856-1860: Second Opium War - Treaty of Tientsin
1894-1895: First Sino-Japanese War - Treaty of
Shimonoseki
- 1900: Eight-Nation Alliance
- 1904-1905: Russo-Japanese War (in China)
•
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Early Discussions
• Military confrontation between China and Japan in
Taiwan, 1874
o 1st article on Red Cross volunteers in Franco-Prussian War
• 1874 to 1894: Red Cross hospitals in northern China
o Established by Western missionaries and doctors
• First Sino-Japanese War, 1894
o
o
o
o
Yingkou: field hospital under unofficial Red Cross rubric
ICRC sent medicine and donations to China
Japanese Red Cross
Shenbao’s coverage
• Sun Gan’s memorial to the Minister to Japan:
“As a civilized country in Asia, China does not participate in
such benevolent act [of forming Red Cross society], while all
other countries did. It will only make the Westerners despise us
further. We must consider it seriously as it is important for our
national dignity.”
• Benefits
o
o
o
o
Promote military morale
Win respect
Public health support during disasters
Advance the Chinese medical science
The Japanese Model
Japan
• Adapted to the modern technology and warfare
• Active in the international community
• The first Asian country to join the treaty of Geneva
Convention
Japanese Red Cross
• Centralized
• Controlled by the Ministry of War and supplement
the military
• Sponsored by the royal family
First Hague Peace
Conference, 1899
• Chief delegate Yang Ru:
“Show the world that China is
committed to philanthropy just like
other countries.”
Government takes the lead
Supervised by the throne
Public fundraising
Financial sustainability
Instill civic virtues
Modeled with Western standards
to provide long-term, sustainable
services
• Utilize international conventions for
protection
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•
•
•
•
•
Manchuria Red Cross
Benevolent Society
• Russo-Japanese war in the three eastern provinces
within Manchuria, 1904
o Qing government claimed neutrality
• Manchuria Red Cross Benevolent Society
o
o
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Founded by patriotic merchants in Shanghai
Constitution:
Follows the regulation and protocol of ICRC;
Asks foreign embassies to notify their troops to respect its neutrality;
Appeals for the military protection from Russia, Japan and China;
Elects Western board to contact missionaries in the three provinces and to
reduce external intervention;
The society is a private endeavor but the committee is looking for support
and guidance from the central and regional administrations;
Provides stipend to cover travelling expenses of volunteers;
International Red Cross
Society of Shanghai (IRCSS)
• 35 western board members, 10 Chinese
• English as the official language
Governmental Support
• Close relationships with ministry level officials
• Foreign Ministry and Business Ministry: diplomatic
negotiations
• Senior officials: fundraising
• Regional officials: local coordination
• The throne: “covert” to explicit support
• Sheng Xuanhuai , Lu Haihuan, and Wu Zhongxi
The 1907 Petition
• Reviewed the services of IRCSS from 1904 to 1907
• Appealed for governmental supervision
• Post-war medical training and education
Post-War Services
• IRCSS: dissolved by the court in 1908
• 1908-1910: Chinese Red Cross Society (CRCS)
• 1910: the edict to rename it to Great Qing Red
Cross Society (Da Qing Hongshizihui)
o Subordinated to the Ministry of War
o President: Sheng Xuanhuai
o Opposed by Shen Dunhe, the founder and president of CRCS
Critiques
• Public? Private?
• Shen:
“…from the very beginning the society was led by gentry, and
[the fact] was acknowledged by the nation and the
international community.”
• Tension
o expedient solution v.s. regular system
o Internationalize v.s. indigenize
Chinese Red Cross, 1904-1912
• 1894-1895: Sino-Japan war (Jiawu Zhanzhen)
o Western Red Cross activities in Liaoning
• 1904-1905: Russo-Japanese War
o March, 1904: International Red Cross Society of Shanghai
(Shanghai Wanguo Hongshizihui)
o June, 1904: Qing signed Geneva Conventions, China became an
official member of ICRC.
• Post Russo-Japanese War
o
o
o
o
1906: China adhered to the new Geneva Conventions
1908-1910: Chinese Red Cross Society
1910: Great Qing Red Cross Society (Da Qing Hongshizihui)
1912: new Red Cross constitution, Unification Conference
Joint Initiative
• Government – “acquiescent” facilitator
o
o
o
o
Building legitimacy
Coordinating national operation
Facilitating public fundraising
Patronizing
• Individuals – the main player
o
o
o
o
Networking and mobilizing
Moderation national and international relations
Fundraising and distributing
Transporting people and materials
Transformation to
Modern Philanthropy
• Catalyzed by the pressing needs
• Convergence of philanthropic tradition and the
Western model of humanitarian aid
• A vibrant civic sphere that was ready for change
• New technology
Philanthropic Traditions (Ming and Qing)
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•
•
•
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widespread, yet sporadic
regional
responsive
Focused on lineage and neighborhood
Funders: local merchants, gentry and literati
Limitations
• Lack of legitimacy
• Insufficient in cross-regional cooperation
Geographical Root
• Center(s) of modern philanthropy
• Earliest experiment: China Relief Benevolent Society
Civic Sphere
• Confucian ideal of serving the general public
• Nationalism and patriotism
o Conservatives: culturocentrism
o Progressives/internatonalists: modernization and civilization
o National solidarity: survive Social Darwinism
• Individual responsibility
o Manifested patriotism through non-governmental bodies
Technologies
• Railway, steamer and automobile
• Telegraph
• Media
Path in the Court
• Bureaucratic entanglement
• Gentry-official “lobbyists”
• Attitudes of the throne
o
o
o
o
Moral imperative
To earn International recognition
To follow the trend
To leverage international influence
Medical philanthropy
• To cure the nation by curing individuals
Why Red Cross?
• Medical focus
• Modern organizational model
• Privilege of neutrality
• Government:
Retain control and join the global community
• Individual:
Strengthen the fragile nation
Question
• Given the victory of Shen Dunhe in retaining the
autonomy of Chinese Red Cross, it seems that the
civil society is more likely to thrive under a “weak”
government. Do you agree with it or not? And why?