“The ‘Modern Child’ in Global Contexts:
insights from the Young Lives project”
EDITED COPY OF POWERPOINT GIVEN AT CONFERENCE:
The Modern Child and the Flexible Labour Market
Trondheim, 29th April 2009
by
Martin Woodhead
Child and Youth Studies, the Open University,
and Young Lives, Oxford University
m.woodhead@open.ac.uk
PHOTOS HAVE BEEN REMOVED IN THIS COPY.
DETAIL OF THE RESEARCH REPORTED IN THIS
PRESENTATION CAN BE FOUND IN:
“Access, equity and quality in early education and
transitions to primary school: evidence from Young
Lives research in Ethiopia, India and Peru”
by Martin Woodhead,
Patricia Ames, Uma Vennam, Workneh Abebe and
Natalia Streuli
Published by Bernard van Leer Foundation, 2009 (in
press) downloadable from www.bernardvanleer.org
Outline
1. Introducing Young Lives research
2. Globalization and modern childhoods
3. Education for All…and Early Education for All?
4. Perspectives on early childhood and
transitions to school from Young Lives in
– Peru
– Ethiopia
– India (Andhra Pradesh)
1. YOUNG LIVES RESEARCH INTO CHILD POVERTY
Four countries
Ethiopia, India (Andhra Pradesh), Peru, and Vietnam
Pro-poor sample
20 sites in each country selected to reflect country diversity,
rural-urban, livelihoods, ethnicity etc
Two age cohorts
• 2000 children born in 2000-01
• 1000 children born in 1994-95
Five major survey rounds – all 12,000 children
All data archived
Some features of
Young Lives
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Child-focussed
• children’s roles, agency and
perspectives…in context
Longitudinal
• infancy to adulthood
Multi-dimensional/disciplinary
• household, child
development, health, social
protection, education etc
Multiple methodologies
• Quantitative and qualitative
2. MODERN CHILDHOODS AND A STORY OF
GLOBALISATION?
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‘Modern childhoods’ are:
– constructed and contingent,
variable and changing
– not natural, inevitable or fixed
– respond to particular
social/economic/political
circumstances, beliefs and
ideologies;
– marked by diversity in
discourses and practices, within
and between societies
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Childhoods travel…
– in terms of discourses and
practices
– strong influence from
Minority to Majority World,
North to South
– wealthiest to least wealthy,
powerful to powerless
– fuelled by development
agencies
Globalisation has
been fuelled by:
•
•
•
•
Normative accounts - the
singularity of ‘the child’ in
Child Development
Standardised descriptions of
children’s growth, milestones
from dependency to
autonomy, prerequisites for
psycho-social health
Export of psychometric tests
of normality/deviation,
abilities and disabilities
Curricula and pedagogies
Example 1: ‘thinking locally…acting globally’?
The World Bank’s seven ‘Developmental Stages’.
e.g.
1 to 2 years children ‘…enjoy stories and
experimenting with objects, walk steadily,
climb stairs, run, assert independence…’
2 to 3.5 years children require opportunities ‘to
engage in dramatic play, increasingly complex
books, sing favourite songs, work simple
puzzles…’ (www.worldbank.org).
Example 2: Normal early childhoods…playing,
learning…working?
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BUT Children’s “needs” are becoming more
universal
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UNCRC 1989 is a (near) universal
regulative tool:
• the child’s right to development, to
play, education
• UN Committee General Comment 7
2005, calls for a positive agenda for
early childhood
Rapid economic growth in Majority
World:
• encourages investment in schooled
childhoods to compete in
competitive labour market
Young children as human capital?
“Why should society invest in
disadvantaged young children?
The traditional argument …is
made on the grounds of fairness
and social justice. …equity
considerations… There is another
argument …based on economic
efficiency. It is more powerful
than the equity argument, in part
because the gains from such
investment can be quantified and
they are large…”
(James Heckman 2006)
The Challenges of globalised childhoods
• Access to services, quality, and equity
• Recognising diversities/inequalities within
countries, communities and families
• Implementing policies in context-appropriate
and sustainable ways
• Ensuring good governance
• Ensuring respect for human rights as well
human capital
3. EDUCATION FOR ALL
…INCLUDING EARLY EDUCATION FOR ALL?
Basic primary education ….approx 85% of the world’s
children , but with major regional, economic, gender
disparities, and major quality issues etc
Early childhood education is expanding fast
1999-2005:
20 million extra enrolments, especially:
- S & W Asia (67% increase)
- sub-Saharan Africa (61% increase)
(UNESCO, GMR, 2008)
Studying impact of these trends via
Young Lives Early transitions sub-study (funded by
Bernard van Leer Foundation)
Attendance at a preschool:
–94% in Vietnam
–87% in Andhra Pradesh
–84% in Peru
–25% Ethiopia (58% urban, 4% rural)
(Caregivers’ report at Round 2 - since age three)
Early transitions research in Peru…
Education “to become someone in life…”
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Themes from interview transcripts:
On the importance of a schooled childhood
1. To be able to defend oneself: “…because we can read and
we don’t get easily cheated out.”
2. To become a professional: “they can’t stay here…with a
profession that takes her far…
3. To become different: “I … walk in the fields with sandals
(ojotas). At least he will go with shoes (zapatitos) if he gets a
good head with education”
4. To get away from the land: “I don’t want to work in the
fields…I want to finish my studies.” (Crivello 2008)
…’becoming’ means accessing educated, urban childhoods,
including through migration
Schooling childhoods in Peru
• Primary education enrolment
– 96%
• Growth in preschool
– 1991 = 30%
– 2006 = 68% (no gender
differences)
–84% reported by Young
Lives caregivers
Quality in preschools in Peru – institutionalised
variability within government sector
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Attendance by Preschool type and poverty
-rural sample in Peru
Attendance by Preschool type and poverty
–urban sample in Peru
Becoming somebody…or being nobody?
Interviews with 12 year olds:
• 90% would like to complete either university (78%) or
technical college (12%) (n = 674)
Caregivers:
• 92% want their children to complete either university (75%)
or technical school (17%)
BUT
• 60% Young Lives twelve year olds were over-age for their
grade
• 50% of children in Peru do not finish secondary school
(Guadalupe 2002)
• Peru achieved lowest educational achievement scores in PISA
study of countries in Latin America
The challenges of
progression in school?
Interviewer: Do you think it
is going to be more
difficult?
Cecilia: Yes. More difficult
than first grade.
Interviewer: And is first
grade more difficult than
pre-school?
Cecilia: Yes. […] A little bit
Interviewer: What is going
to be the most difficult
thing?
Cecilia: … not to fall
behind.
Cecilia’s story, urban Peru
Early transitions research in
Ethiopia
Education for All:
Transforming a generation?
“Children with a good life have to have school
bags”
12 year olds’ ranking (Ethiopia) based on group work:
•
Family
the ‘well-being activity:
•
Education
•
Good food, shelter
•
Material security
•
No poverty or sickness
•
Good behaviour
•
Respect from others
•
Leisure
(Camfield and Tafere 2008)
Great educational expectations…
Ethiopia 12 year old survey 2006:
80% urban, 63% rural, aspire for university!!
Reasons for moving up the ladder
‘Education’ (25.2% urban, 15.8% rural)
‘Work harder’ (21.8%)
Reasons for moving down the ladder
‘Not making money’ (51.3% urban, 29.5% rural)
‘Poor education’ (21.7% urban, 12.7% rural)
Only 6% of 12 year olds are not enrolled in school
BUT
39% cannot read a simple sentence
eg ‘The sun is hot’
Ethiopia- challenges for basic education
• Overcrowded classrooms,
inadequate buildings, few
teaching materials, physical
punishment, absent
teachers
• Over-age children, repeated
classes, irregular
attendance, drop-out,
hidden costs to parents,
combining school with work
6 year old Beniam’s story:
Beniam’s father:
“Education is useful
for the boy…(We) are
running out of land to
support [ourselves] in
farming” …“there is
weather pollution
here” and “the water
has dried up”.
“I wont go to school …I cant
write…I don’t have the
interest…I want to look after
the cattle”
The context for ‘modern childhoods’…work is still
essential…even if no longer so ‘visible’
Ethiopia: 12 year olds
•
40.5% believe ‘school only’ is best
•
56.4% believe ‘combining school and work’ is best
“It make me happy having a job…and I can pay for school
things…my shoes, bag and clothes”
A role for early childhood education – reinforcing inequalities?
–urban sample in Ethiopia
Ready for school?
Early transitions research in Andhra
Pradesh (India) – schooling reinforces
diverse/unequal childhoods?
Primary Education in Andhra Pradesh (India) – impact of a
growing private sector
• Primary education enrolment = 73% (2006)
• Private sector = 36% of enrolments, and growing!
– The attraction of English medium instruction
Early childhood services – combating poverty or
amplifying inequalities?
1975 Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) national
network of “Anganwadis” targeting most disadvantaged,
including basic nutrition
BUT
Variable quality, low funding,
low levels of training,
low regulation and supervision
AND
Increasing switch to private sector:
- English medium
- teaching basic skills
- Caste/class preferences
A government anganwadi – the main option for rural
communities
Low resourcing, low quality
…two anganwadis in Andhra Pradesh
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Growth of private kindergartens in urban centres,
including for poorest households - Andhra Pradesh
Teaching the basics…the private choice?
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Expectations are high… but not for all
India AP Caregivers’
expectations for University
•
64% for boys
•
42% for girls
BUT
•
54% of girls expect
University
The private ‘choice’ in rural Andhra Pradesh:
Revanth’s mother:
“…If he goes (to private school) … he will become very wise - that
is why we are sending him there…
“…We are ready to spend…There is no one (to help with
payments). We take as debts…
“…Two of my girl children, attend school in the village... We are
not paying for them ”
First steps into diverse school trajectories…and long term
outcomes?
Govt Preschool
Home
Govt Preschool
Govt Primary School
Private School, Kindergarten or Grade1
Private School
But if fees increase….or household income falls
Private school
back to Govt school?
Schooling and globalisation of modern
childhoods
• Institutionalising
childhoods…School for all
(most!)…education for some?
• Promoting equity or inequity?
• Aspirations versus realities…for
early childhood and school?
• Modern childhoods in context of
daily (working) lives and
prospects?
• Impact of global economic
downturn?
• Quality, relevance, sustainability?
• New models for childhood?
For more information about Young Lives…
http://younglives.org.uk