Nontraditional Degree Attainment
Educating our Prison Population:
Transformative Education, Social Welfare,
or Are We Just Plain Crazy?
Jennifer D. Smith
Nontraditional Adult Higher Education
Spring, 2006
Presentation Outline:
History
 Criminal Justice System
 Correctional Education
Today’s State of Affairs
Recidivism
Prison Education
Testimony
Recommendations
Exercise
The United States incarcerates more people than
any other industrialized country
From 1975-1990, the number of inmates in state & federal
prisons increased by almost 200%
By 1998, 1 in every 150 U.S. residents were in jail
Houston, TX is incarcerated! (2 million)
Vacca, J. (2004). Educated Prisoners Are Less Likely to Return to Prison. Journal of Correctional Education. December 2004.
http://www.360degrees.org
Criminal Justice System &
Correctional Education History
The Dawn of Prison (1776-1828)
•
Newgate Prison in Conneticut-1773
•“Panopticon”
•Gin
by Jeremy Bentham-The Ultimate Prison
causes problems (property and violent crimes)
•The
Pennsylvania system (segregation and Quaker ideals) vs. Auburn
•system (congregate)
•Correctional
•Chain
•First
Education Movement in the US begins (1789)- Walnut Street jail in Philly
gangs and prison reform
juvenile institution-1825
http://www.ncsall.net
http://www.360degrees.org
Criminal Justice System &
Correctional Education History
The Police & Social Disorder (1828-1865)
• Gangs (street, ethnic, religious, organized crime units, etc)
• Penitentiary reigns and continue to crumble
• New York City Police Department formed-1844
• Rehabilitation works
• Boston Prison Discipline Society & the Sabbath School Movement-1833
• Mary Carpenter opened the Ragged School in England-1846
Reformatory, Child Saving, Race Laws (1865-1890)
• Convict lease system, chain gangs, and the penal farm
• American Prison Congress & reform-1870
• First women’s prison opened in IN-1873
• Pioneer Zebulon Brockway-Supt. at the Elmira Reformatory in NY-1876 to 1900
• The electric chair replaces hanging (needed a more humane way to execute
prisoners)
http://www.ncsall.net
http://www.360degrees.org
Criminal Justice System &
Correctional Education History
Drugs, Sex, and Hysteria (1890-1917)
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First Federal prison (Leavenworth, Kentucky-took 30 yrs to complete)1897 and probation
Progressive Era called for prison reform and emphasis on educating
prisoners-1901 to 1929
Katharine Bement Davis, Supt. Of Bedford Hills Reformatory for Women
adapted school education to the needs of prison population
Police Reform & the Big House (1917-1945)
• Uniform crime report, evolution of the FBI, Alcatraz
• Austin MacCormick founded the Correctional Education Association
• Big House (average of 2,500 inmates): San Quentin-CA, Sing Sing-NY, Stateville-IL,
and Jackson-MI
• The Journal of Correctional Education was founded-1937
http://www.360degrees.org
http://www.ncsall.net
Criminal Justice System &
Correctional Education History
White Collar Crime (1945-1961)
• The American Prisoner Assoc. changed its name to the American “Correctional”
Assoc.-1954
• Rehabilitation and correctional institutions (educational opportunities emerge)
• Prisoners Rights Movement-1950s & 1960s
Civil Disobedience & Activism (1960-1970)
• Prisoners Rights Movement-1950s & 1960s
• Right to an attorney, even to those who can’t afford one
• The TX Prison College was established-1965
• Jury Selection and Service Act of 1968-uniform criteria for jury service
http://www.360degrees.org
Htpp://www.ncsall.net
Criminal Justice System &
Correctional Education History
War on Drugs (1970-1980)
• Riots at Attica-1971
• Rockefeller Drug Laws
• Death penalty is unconstitutional (1972), but comes back in 1976
• Jury service can’t be restricted to men and we should be paid just like
the men-1975
• Rehabilitation doesn’t work-1970s
Crackdown and Get Tough (1980-1990)
• Ronald Reagan is in office, AIDS is ignored, Just Say No, and Crack is on
the scene
• Prison population booms and jails are overlooked (mandatory min
sentencing)
• Prison privatization, boot camps, and tougher legislation
http://www.360degrees.org
http://www.ncsall.net
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Criminal Justice System &
Correctional Education History
Three Strikes and You’re Out (1992-2000)
• Supermax prison, community policing, three strikes sentencing
• More women are incarcerated and police brutality is rampant
• Pell grant funding for prisoners was eliminated-1993 to 1994
(Violent Crime Control & Law Enforcement Act of 1993 and the
Higher Educ Reauthorization Act of 1994)
The 21st century
• Conservative approach to treatment of prisoners
• Crime is down, budgets are more difficult to justify (we spend
more on prisons, than we do education)
• Racial profiling, Death penalty moratorium, etc.
http://www.360degrees.org
http://www.ncsall.net
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The Average Prisoner
In 2000, the number of incarcerated men and women reached 2 million,
costing about $40 billion/year
About the average prisoner:
 Is functionally illiterate
 Is drug/alcohol involved
 Probably learning disabled
 Was a juvenile delinquent
 53% are in federal prison because of drug offenses (Illinois leads the nation)
 Abused substances
 Is a non-violent offender
 Came from a dysfunctional household with a history of abuse
 About 41% in state/federal prisons have not completed H.S.
 Is usually male (& of color)
 Average age is 37
 Has a mental health issue
Federal Bureau of Prisons
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Bureau of Justice Statistics
Current State of Affairs
The average annual operation cost per state inmate was $22,650
The average annual operation cost per federal inmate was $22,632
Illinois spent approximately $1 million and $21,844 per inmate (45,629
inmates as of 6/01)
California has one of the highest prison budgets in the nation at approximately
$5 billion/year
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Huge chunk spent on housing parolees who return for new offenses
Of the 125,000 released/year, 98,750 return (79%)
Each prisoner cost taxpayers at least $30,000/year
Bureau of Justice Statistics: State Prison Expenditures (2001)
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Educational Attainment for
Correctional Populations
13%
41%
23%
Some H.S. or
less
GED
H.S.
23%
Bureau of Justice Statistics
Postsecondary
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95%-97% of inmates now in
prison will eventually be released
and will return to our communities
Recidivism-Contributing Factors
Unchangeable
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Age
Criminal history
Gender
Changeable
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State of New York-Crimestat: A Report on Offender
Reentry. (2003).
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Pro criminal attitude
Poor employment pattern
Inadequate income
Housing instability
Drug use
Alcohol use
Pro criminal companions
Low academic/vocational
skills
Unsupportive family
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Statistically Speaking

Inmates who earned a diploma, returned to jail at a rate of 26.4% vs.
those who did not earn a diploma at 44.6%
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25% of inmates receiving vocational training returned to prison vs.
77% who had no vocational training
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State of Ohio found that former inmates who were enrolled in a college
program returned at a rate of 18% vs. those who were not enrolled at
40%
When former prisoners don’t return, there’s a national savings of
hundreds of millions of dollars/year
New York State estimates a cost of $2500/year/student to provide
higher education in prison vs. an average cost of $30,000 to incarcerate
them
Vacca, J. (2004). Educated Prisoners Are Less Likely to Return to Prison. Journal of Correctional Education. December 2004.
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What Can Be Done to Reduce Recidivism?
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Prisoner education
Prison work
Transitional services
Release planning
Supervision
Sustainable income
Stable housing
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Family support
Access to public support
services
Medication
Mental health services
Parole discharge planning
Substance abuse
treatment
State of New York-Crimestat: A Report on Offender
Reentry. (2003).
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Educated Prisoners
“The relationship between illiteracy and criminal behavior was
established long before the Walnut Street jail opened in
Philadelphia in 1790 & remains as one of the major issues in
corrections today”. (LoPinto)
Inmate college programs in the United States:
 Prior to 1994, 350 programs in 90% of the states
 In 2001, 8-12 programs
 In 2003-2004, approximately 85,000 prisoners were taking
college courses (5% of total prisoner population)
 Higher education in prison yields $2 (in lowered reincarceration costs alone) for every $1 spent
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Legislation
Title IV (1965) permitted inmates to apply for financial aid in the form of Pell
Grants
Prior to FY99, the Adult Education Act required a state to set aside 10% of its
basic state grant funding for prisoners
The Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act required a
state to set aside 1% of its basic state grant funds for correctional education
Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act (1994) prohibited inmate access
to Pell Grants
Higher Education Act, Answering YES to one drug conviction on the FAFSA
makes one ineligible for financial aid for one year
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Why Even Bother?
Why educate inmates?
 Opportunities to improve their capability for employment after being
released
 Promote positive transition
 Increase self confidence and psychological well-being
 Prisoners can serve as role models to others
 Promote social skills
 Inmates move from passive objects to active participants
 Enormous benefits for families
 Former prisoners often continue some sort of education when released
 Reduce recidivism; social and financial benefits
 While in jail- fewer disciplinary problems from inmates, safer and more
manageable environment
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Barriers to Education
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Restrictive eligibility requirements
Poor academic preparation
Logistical and security concerns
Inmate reassignment
Values/attitudes of authorities
Lack of support from policymakers
Inadequate funding (teaching personnel, supplies, etc)
Overcrowded prison population
Peer pressure
Public ambivalence regarding rehabilitation
Removal of grant money
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Recommendations
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Increase funding for college programs (public & private support)
Restore financial aid for inmates
Focus on learner-centered education
Incentives for participation (i.e. good conduct credit)
Limit the transfer of inmates to other facilities
Mandatory education via GED
Vocational job training
Recruitment and training of qualified teachers
Pre & Post release services
Use more than recidivism as a measure of success (employment
data, parole compliance, continued involvement in education, etc)
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Exercise
A copy of this presentation is also available at:
www.geocities.com/jenniferdsmith1
If designing a prison education curriculum, which major areas would
you focus on?
It’s time to take sides, are you in support or against educating
prisoners? Why did you choose that stance?
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“ We understand the public’s anger about crime and realize
that prison is first and foremost a punishment for crime. But
we believe that when we are able to work and earn a higher
education degree while in prison, we are empowered to truly
pay our debts to society by working toward repairing some of
what has been broken…it is for all these reasons, and in the
name of hope and redemption, that we ask you to help us
rebuild a college program here at Bedford Hills Correctional
Facility”. The Inmate Committee, 1996
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“Educating the incarcerated is not an exercise in
futility, nor is it a gift to the undeserving. It is a
practical and necessary safeguard to insure that
those who have found themselves without the
proper resources to succeed have these needs met
before they are released. It is a gift to ourselves and
to our children, a gift of both compassion and peace
of mind. We are not turning the other cheek to
those who have hurt us. We are taking their hands
and filling them with a learning
so that they can’t strike us again”.
Janice Grieshaber, Executive Director, The Jenna Foundation for Non-Violence
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Resources
Changing Minds: The Impact of College in a Maximum
Security Prison. (2001). The Graduate Center of the City
University of New York and Women in Prison at the
Bedford Hills Correctional Facility.
CATO Institute www.cato.org
Few Prisoners Enrolling in Available College Classes.
Diverse Issues in Higher Education. December 1, 2005.
Federal Bureau of Prisons www.bop.gov
Improve Prison Education. San Francisco Chronicle. April 12,
2004
New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services
www.criminaljustice.state.ny.us.htm
National Institute of Corrections www.nicic.org
360 Degrees www.360degrees.org
McDonough, J. Prison Education Programs Cut Rate of
Reoffending. The Boston Globe. July 13, 2004.
Correctional Education Association www.ceanational.org
Mayoral Policy Caucus on Prisoner Reentry: City of
Harlow, C. (2003). Education and Correctional Populations.
Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Strenghthening Communities: Breaking the Cycle of
Stephan, J. (2004). State Prison Expenditures. Bureau of
Justice Statistics.
Incarceration and Building Brighter Futures in Chicago.
Illinois Department of Corrections
Steurer, S.J., Smith, L. (2003). Education
US Department of Education
Reduces Crime: Three State Recidivism Study. US
State of New York-Crimestat: A Report on Offender Reentry.
(2003).
Chicago. (2006). Rebuilding Lives, Restoring Hope,
Department of Education, Office of Correctional
Education and Correctional Education Association.
Hudson Link for Higher Education in Prison www.hudsonlink.org
O’Bryant. J. (2003). Crime Control: The Federal Response. Issue Brief
www.idoc.state.il.us
www.ed.gov
Focus on Basics: Corrections Education. National Center for
the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy
www.ncsall.net
The Effects of Education in American Prisons: How Inmate
Education Benefits Society www.outofthecube.com
for Congress
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