Unit 1:
Exploring Life
1. Vocabulary for Unit 1
2. Scientific Method
3. Behavior
4. Shark Movie
Vocabulary List for:
Scientific Method
Directions: Please make flashcards of all the following words and study them for the
Exam.
1. Biology: the study of life
2. Observation: use of senses to gather information
3. Hypothesis: testable statement with a prediction
4. Independent Variable: item you control in experiments
5. Dependant Variable: item you measure in experiments
6. Control Group: remains the same
7. Experimental Group: has one variable changed
8. Theory: well-tested explanation
9. Circadian Rhythm: behavior pattern that takes place in a 24-hour period
10. Innate Behavior: behavior preformed correctly since birth – not learned
11. Imprinting: behavior learned within 24-72 hours after birth
12. Insight: ability to reason
2
Chapter 1: The Scope of Biology
I. Microscopic to Global Scale
A. Atoms and Bonds form Molecules
B. DNA form genes which form chromosomes
C. Cells form tissue which form organs and organ systems
D. Organisms (unicellular to multicellular) form populations which form communities
E. Ecosystems are created from living (Biotic) and nonliving (Abiotic) things
F. Biosphere – where all life can exist
II. Diversity – is what allows life to continue
A. Individuals are unique because of DNA patterns
B. Species share commonalties with those of the same species so can interbreed
C. Biodiversity and variation help create a stable environment so life can continue
D. Homeostasis: internal and external balance of systems
E. Without diversity (clones) disease and disaster can wipe life out quickly
III. Classification
A. Organization of life so that communication around the globe can occur
IV. Interactions and Adaptations
A. How life forms and evolves from simple to complex systems
B. How the climate and other abiotic systems create environments that allow life to exist
C. How life continues through reproductive techniques
D. How energy flows through all the systems to regulate life
E. How organisms adapt to change and survive in changing environments
V. Scientific Method
A. People quantify and qualify information to figure out how it all works
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Chapter 2: Science of Biology
“Science has built an impressive body of knowledge that continues to increase and change with new discoveries.”
I. Discovery
A. Inquiry
i. Biology is the study of life
ii. Ask questions first about what they are observing in nature then they must actively
search out the answers: Investigations.
B. Observations and Data
i. Observations: use of the senses to gather and record information
ii. Data: the information that is recorded (see temperature information)
iii. Scientific instruments allow observations to go further than human senses alone would allow
1. Microscope
2. Telescope
3. Electrophoresis
iv. Observations are recorded as measurements
1. Quantitative: data that revolves around numbers
2. Qualitative: data that records descriptions
C. Inference
i. A logical conclusion based on observations
ii. Ex:
1. Doorbell rings : Someone is at the door
2. Someone screams when hit with a rock : the person feels pain
iii. Inferences help refine general questions into specific questions that can be explored further
1. What does the person want? Are they trying to sell something?
2. What is happening within the human body to make pain felt?
iv. Be careful not to stretch the inference and do not confuse opinions and facts
D. Generalizations
i. Generalizations are conclusions generated through the combining of a lot of data. The
average will tell you a great deal about a large population even though there are exceptions to
the rule.
E. Scientific Method Steps
i. Observe
ii. Question what you see: may be answered or may lead to new direction
iii. Hypothesis: Statement that predicts an outcome (no longer known as an educated guess.
This is an oxymoron. If you are educated you no longer guess you are making a logical
inference.) This must be testable or it will not be counted.
iv. Experiment: controlled set up used to test and prove or disprove the hypothesis
1. Experiments must be controlled
2. Data collected at the end is used to formulate a conclusion about what is going on.
Scientists must be able to rule out any unwanted data in order to conclude what is the
cause of the process.
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3. Control: item that remains the same throughout an experiment
4. Variable: item that is changed in an experiment
a. Independent: item that you change
b. Dependant: item that changes because of what you changed. This is measurable.
5. Graphing
6. One variable must be tested at a time, while all other factors must remain the same.
7. Can you foresee the problems with experiments that involve humans?
i. Mental and emotional attachments: use of placebo which is a fake (sugar) pill.
v. Collect and Record data
vi. Report: this will be your lab write-up
vii. Theory: only becomes a theory if the experiment can be preformed many times and come out
the same for many scientists.
1. Well-tested explanation that makes sense of a great variety of scientific observations.
F. Evidence
i. Information upon which inferences are based: collected body of data
ii. Must be repeated with the same outcome many times by many people
iii. Evidence helps provide understanding for truth behind information provided to the public
iv. As new technology is developed or as new information arises, evidence is changed,
experimental data is added to or changed and new ideas are developed.
v. Not everything is scientifically backed up or explained by science and yet it does happen.
vi. Ethics and morals help to explain why some things should or should not happen.
G. Models are used in scientific inquiry.
i. Physical, mental or mathematical representations of how people understand process or an
idea
ii. Drawings, graphs, 3-D representations, mathematical equations, analogies
iii. Communication among scientists in the work place as well as around the world is very
important. Cooperation and coordination are key factors in making sure communication is
occurring successfully.
5
Some baseline temperatures in the three temperature
scales:
temperature
kelvin degree Celsius degree Fahrenheit
symbol
K
boiling point of water 373.15
°C
°F
100.
212.
melting point of ice
273.15
0.
32.
absolute zero
0.
-273.15
-459.67
Common temperature comparisons:
temperature
degree Celsius degree Fahrenheit
symbol
°C
°F
boiling point of water
100.
212.
average human body temperature
37.
98.6
average room temperature
20. to 25.
68. to 77.
melting point of ice
0.
32.
Temperature conversions between the three
temperature scales:
kelvin / degree Celsius conversions (exact):


kelvin = degree Celsius + 273.15
degree Celsius = kelvin - 273.15
degree Fahrenheit / degree Celsius conversions (exact):


degree F = degree C x 1.8 + 32.
degree C = (degree F - 32.) / 1.8
6
Graphing Notes to Remember
For Biology
129
150
220
111
90
116
200
Student Heights
Heights
0-50
51-100
101-150
151-200
201-250
# of students
0
1
4
1
1




Collect data
Organize it into a table
Decide which is dependant vs. independent and label appropriately
Chart or graph
Student Heights
o Create graph title
o Label axis (use appropriate scale)
#
o Create axis titles with units
s
t
o Plot data points
u
o Circle data points
Dependant Variable
d
o Connect ONLY the data points
e
(Measurable)
OR
n
o Create bars
t
o Distinguish each bar
s
o Create a key
Key
Class 1
Heights (cm)
Independent Variable
(You Choose)




Class 2
Class 3
Class 4
ALWAYS use pencil!!!!
ALWAYS use a ruler!!!!
ALWAYS be neat with writing!!!!!
ALWAYS use graph paper!!!!!
7
Chapter 3: Process: Studying Animal Behavior
“As in other areas of biology, most investigations of animal behavior involve some combination of these two approaches
[discovery and hypothesis-based].”
I. Studying Behavior
A. Asking Questions
i.
What an animal does as it interacts with its environment
ii. Make observations and ask questions leads to...hypothesis
B. Observing in Nature
i.
Controlled experiments are impractical
ii. Observation using qualitative data
iii. EX: Jane Goodall’s chimpanzee observations lead to knowledge of their social behavior
and pecking order
C. Immediate and Ultimate Causes of Behavior
i.
Immediate causes: explanation in terms of immediate reactions
ii. Ultimate Causes: explanation of behavior based on organism’s evolutionary adaptations
iii. Ultimate causes are used to determine how the behavior leads to survival and
reproduction of the organism
II. Experiments on Genes and Environment
A. Innate Behaviors
i.
Behavior that is preformed correctly by all individuals of a species, even if they have no
previous experience with the behavior
ii. Suggests a gene origin and thus may be inherited
iii. Innate behaviors are not necessary always determined only by genes, environment plays a
role in influencing the behavior
iv.
Fixed action pattern (FAP): an innate behavior that occurs as an unchangeable sequence
of actions
v. Performance of an action correctly without practice could aid in survival
B. Rhythms of Behavior
i.
Organisms synchronize their behaviors with the environment
1. Seasons, Photo period, temperature, availability of food
ii. Circadian rhythm: innate body rhythm tied to approximate 24-hour period: “Biological
clock”
III. Learning Behaviors
A. Habituation
i.
Learning: change in a behavior resulting from experience
ii. Habituation: animal learns not to respond to a repeated stimulus that conveys little or no
important information.
B. Imprinting
i.
Learning that is limited to a specific time period in an animal’s life and is usually
irreversible
ii. Results in a strong bond between parent and infant
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C. Conditioning
i.
When learning is linked to a reward or punishment
ii. Classical conditioning is learned with a meaningless stimulus
iii. Trial and error conditioning is learned with experiences through their own behavioral acts
D. Insight
i.
Learning to respond to a stimulus differently because of a past experience
ii.
Involves ability to reason, analyze and test theories
E. Play Behavior
i.
Allows practice for survival
ii.
Exercise for cardiovascular and muscular conditioning
IV. Social Behaviors
A. Competition
i.
Resources are limited
ii.
Aggressive: physical or threatening behaviors
iii. Dominance: ranking of individuals
iv.
Territorial: defending an area from other members of the species
B. Courtship
i.
Elaborate behaviors to attract a mate
C. Communication
i.
Odors, sounds, visual displays (color or movement), touches
ii.
Honeybee “waggle dance”
D. Cooperation
i.
Social systems allow organisms to work together to benefit the group
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White Shark
Outside the Cage
National Geographic
Background: Mark Marks researches white sharks in their natural habitat. He is a
pioneer in behavior studies of sharks. Marks has invented new technology for studying
white sharks with minimum interaction and distraction of normal shark behavior. Fellow
research peers have split opinions with respect to Marks’ methodology. Either way
Marks has been able to change the public perception of white shark behavior.
Directions:
 After watching the movie, write three paragraphs that describes how Mark Marks
uses the scientific method to study shark behavior.
o Be sure to include:
 Similarities and differences between studying behavior in nature
vs. a controlled experiment in the lab
 Description of at least 2 methods/technologies that Marks uses to
study behavior
 Reasons why other scientists feel that Mark’s methods are both
dangerous and bias while Mark’s does not
 Use and underline 5 of your current vocabulary words in your description.
 Due the day after you finished the movie.
Carcharodon carcharias
10
Unit 2:
Exploring Cells
1. Vocabulary for Unit 2
2. Biochemistry – building blocks
3. Cells
4. Cell Processes
5. Cell Project
11
Vocabulary List for:
Biochemistry
Directions: Please make flashcards of all the following words and study them for the
Exam.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
Element: smallest unit of matter
Electron: negatively charged particle
Ionic Bond: gives up or gains an e- and opposites attract
Covalent Bond: shares eHydrogen Bond: weak bond between H ions and other ions
Peptide Bond: holds amino acids together to form proteins
Chemical Reaction: making and breaking of bonds
Reactant: ingredients of a reaction
Product: output of a reaction
Polar: molecules that have slightly +/- sides because of unequal sharing of eCohesion: tendency of like molecules to stick
Adhesion: tendency of unlike molecules to stick
Acid: large amount of H+ ions
Base: large amount of OH- ions
Organic: contains CHON
Inorganic: lacks carbon
Amino Acid: monomers of protein molecules
Denature: to change the shape of a molecule with heat or pH change
Enzyme: speeds up chemical reactions, catalyst
Carbohydrate: quick energy - sugar
Lipid: stored energy - fats and oils
Protein: building blocks of structures – made of amino acids
Nucleic Acid: building block of DNA – memory material
Polymer: large unit, made of lots of monomers
Monomer: small unit
Homeostasis: Balance or equilibrium
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Chapter 4: Chemical Basis of Life
“All living things share the same chemical building blocks and depend on chemicals for survival.”
I. Elements
A. Elements
i. Matter can not be created nor destroyed, it just changes phases
ii. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass
iii. Elements create matter: smallest unit of matter that cannot be broken down further by
chemical means
iv. 25 elements are essential to life
1. Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen and Nitrogen make up 96%
2. Oxygen, Carbon, and Hydrogen = organic material
3. Other 4% are considered Trace Elements: Iron, Iodine, Manganese are some trace
elements essential to life
B. Compounds
i. More than one element added together are considered compounds
ii. Ratios: H2O, NaCl, C6H12O6
II. Atoms
A. Atoms
i. Smallest particle of an element
ii. Each element is made up of a single configuration = atom
iii. Made up of protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral charge) in the center and
surrounded by electrons (negative charge)
iv. There are equal numbers of protons and electrons
v. Electrons are found in clouds circling the nucleus and their energy is determined by the
proximity to the protons
vi. Shells (energy levels) determine if the atom is chemically reactive or not
vii. Electrons can be gained or lost giving the atom an overall charge
B. Isotopes
i. Atoms with the same number of protons but different neutrons
ii. Example: Carbon-12, Carbon- 13, and Carbon- 14
iii. Carbon-14 is an unstable molecule = breaks down and is said to be radioactive
iv. Radioactive isotopes are used in research and medicine
1. Cells use isotopes just as they would any other atom, thus the radioactivity acts as a
marker for pathways atoms are used in the body
III. Bonds: attractions between atoms caused by electrons
A. Ionic Bonds
i. The gaining or losing of electrons creates a charge : opposites attract
ii. When an atom has lost or gained an electron it is called an ion
iii. Example: NaCl or salt
B. Covalent Bonds
i. The sharing of electrons
ii. Number of bonds an atom can create depends on how many electrons in its outermost shell
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iii. Molecules: two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds
iv. Example: Water
C. Chemical Reactions
i. The making or breaking of bonds
ii. Uses or releases energy
iii. Expressed as an equation
Reactants
Chemical Reaction (Enzymes)
Products
IV. Water
A. Structure
i. Covalent bond but electrons are not shared equally
ii. “V” shape to the molecule
iii. Unequal charge makes the molecule polar, thus creating an attraction between water
molecules
iv. Hydrogen bonds: weak bond held between slightly charged hydrogen atoms and other
atoms
Single Water Molecule
Several Water Molecules Bonded
B. Supporting Properties
i. Cohesion and Adhesion
1. Cohesion: tendency of molecules of the same kind to stick together
2. Adhesion: attraction of unlike molecules
3. Water transportation in autotrophs
4. Water striders’ ability to walk on water
ii. Temperature Moderation
1. Water resists temperature change
2. Thermal energy: total amount of energy associated with the random movement of
atoms and molecules in a sample of matter
3. Temperature: measure of the average energy of random motion of particles in a
substance
4. When two substances come into contact and they differ in temperature, thermal energy
in the form of heat is transferred from hot to cold
5. Evaporation: phase change from liquid to gas
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a. Phase changes take energy to shift, thus as they turn to gas heat is taken with it =
Sweating cools the body through evaporation
iii. Density
1. Amount of matter in a given volume
2. Ice is lower density because as water cools it expands, thus it floats
a. If it was more dense, it would form on the bottom of lakes and ponds keeping fish
from their nutrient source
iv. Dissolving Properties
1. Solution: uniform mixture of two or more substances
2. Solvent: substance that dissolves other substances (water)
3. Solute: substance being dissolved (salt)
C. Acids and Bases
i. The balance of H+ ions and OH- ions is important in maintaining homeostasis
ii. Acids: contain high concentration of H+ ions
iii. Bases: contain high concentrations of OH- ions
iv. pH Scale: describes how acidic or basic a substance is
Acid
0
H+
Neutral
7
H20
Base
14
OH-
v. Buffers: substances that resist changes in pH by accepting and donating H+ ions
15
16
Organic Compounds contain at least three of the following elements: CHON
Inorganic Compounds lack at least two, usually carbon
These elements can be bonded together to form compounds.
Chapter 5: The Molecules of Life
I. Carbon
A. Carbon Skeletons and Functional Groups
i. Carbon can bond with 4 electrons
ii. Carbon-based molecules and water make up majority of the body
iii. Organic molecules: contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (nitrogen)
iv. Inorganic molecules: are non-carbon based
B. Monomers and Polymers
i. Monomers: small units of atoms that build larger more complex molecules
ii. Polymers: made up of series of monomers which may be in a chain or have branches
1. Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids (large organic molecules essential to
life)
C. Building and Breaking Polymers
i. Hydrolysis: the destruction of bonds by adding water
ii. Condensation (dehydration reaction): the creation of bonds by subtracting water molecules
II. Carbohydrates
A. Sugars:
i. Carbohydrates are organic compounds that are made up of sugar molecules
ii. 1:2:1 ratio of Carbon: Hydrogen: Oxygen
iii. Carbon ring shape
iv. Hydrophilic: like water: dissolve readily
v. Monosaccharide
1. Simple sugars (one carbon ring), i.e. Fructose, Glucose, Galactose
2. Main fuel for cellular work
3. Quick energy
vi. Disaccharide
1. Two sugars “double sugar”, i.e. Sucrose, Dextrose, Maltose
2. Main energy for plants and is table sugar
B. Polysaccharides
i. Complex carbohydrates
ii. Starch: found in plants as sugar stock piles
iii. Glycogen: excess sugar molecules are stored in liver in animals
iv. Cellulose: building material in plants (very difficult to digest)
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III. Lipids
A. Characteristics
i. Water avoiding: hydrophobic
ii. Non-polar
B. Fats
i. Three carbon backbone (glycerol) and three fatty-acid chains
ii. Saturated: single bonded, straight chains, stiff molecules
1. solid at room temperature
2. Too much = heart disease
iii. Unsaturated: double bonded, bent chains, fluid molecules
1. liquid at room temperature
2. animals in winter environments need large numbers of unsaturated fatty-acids
C. Steroids
i. 4 fused rings used as chemical signals throughout the body
ii. Cholesterol: found in membranes surrounding your cells used to stiffen the membrane
IV. Proteins – SHAPE MATTERS!!!!!!
A. Functions
i. Proteins: polymer constructed of amino acids
ii. Responsible for the all day-to-day functions
iii. Structural: make hair, fur, muscles, nutrient storage
iv. Defense: circulate in blood and attach as flags to antigens
v. Convey messages, signals, receive messages
vi. Control metabolism
B. Amino Acids: building blocks of proteins
i. Monomer consisting of an amino group, carboxyl group, and a side group
ii. 20 amino acids in nature that are used in all organisms
C. Building Proteins
i. Cells build proteins by attaching amino acid groups = polypeptide
ii. Dehydration reaction = peptide bond
iii. Arrangement of the amino acids creates different proteins
D. Shape
i. Arrangement of the amino acids that are twisted and folded into different shapes
ii. Each shape allows the protein to perform a specific job in the body
iii. Temperature, pH, and other environmental factors can change the shape (denature) of the
protein, thus it will not work
DNA provides order of amino acids, order determines shape, shape determines function!
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V. Enzymes – types of proteins
A. Enzymes and Activation Energy
i. Chemical reactions = making and breaking of bonds
ii. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions (called catalysts)
iii. Enzymes work in particular environments and can tolerate little deviance in either direction
B. How they Work
i. Work like puzzle pieces: each enzyme is specific
ii. Substrate: specific reactant acted upon by enzyme
iii. Active Site: place where substrate fits into enzyme
iv. Products: pieces created after enzyme works on substrate
v. See figure 5-16 on page 104 of textbook
If an enzyme fits properly then a chemical reaction will occur!
==
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Vocabulary List for:
Cells
Directions: Please make flashcards of all the following words and study them for the
Exam.
1. Organelle: mini organ in cells that perform specific functions
2. Plasma membrane: flexible boundary that regulates transport
3. Nucleus: control center of cell, contains DNA
4. Cell wall: solid boundary found outside plant cells
5. Ribosome: site of protein synthesis
6. Vacuole: containment
7. Lysosome: vacuole with digestive enzymes – stomach of cell
8. Chloroplast: green, site of photosynthesis
9. Mitochondria: site of cellular respiration
10. Diffusion: movement of particles from high to low concentrations
11. Osmosis: movement of water from high to low concentrations
12. Hypertonic: movement of water out of an area
13. Hypotonic: movement of water into an area
14. Isotonic: equal movement of water into and out of an area
15. ATP: energy
16. Autotroph: organism who makes their own food
17. Photosynthesis: process that creates sugar from sunlight
18. Heterotroph: organism who cannot make their own food
19. Cellular respiration: process that creates ATP from sugar
20. Aerobic: process that requires oxygen
21. Metabolism: all the chemical reactions in the body
22. Paper chromatography: test used to separate pigments
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Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell
“It is not a simple life to be a single cell, although I have no right to say so, having been a single cell so
long ago myself that I have no memory of it.” Lewis Thomas
I. Organisms
A. Plant and Animal Cells
i. Organelle: mini organs with a specific job to do in a cell
ii. Similarities in both: contain plasma membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm
iii. Differences: Plants have chloroplast and cell wall, Animals have centriole
B. Classification
i. Prokaryote cells: came first, simple, lack true nucleus and most other organelles
ii. Eukaryote cells: more complex, contain true nucleus and organelles
II. Membranes and Organization
A. Membrane Structure
i. Act as dividers or partitions
ii. Regulate transport of substances to maintain homeostasis
iii. Composed of proteins, and lipids
iv. Phospholipids: has phosphate head (hydrophilic), glycerol backbone, and two fatty acid
chains (hydrophobic)
v. Create boundary by creating two layers: Phospholipid Bilayer
vi. Nonpolar substances pass through easily
B. Functions of Proteins
i. Embedded in membrane to carry out enzyme functions, facilitate diffusion,
communication, recognition, transport or carry substances across the membrane
III. Membranes and Regulation
A. Diffusion
i. “Brownian Motion” states that all particles have an innate motion
ii. Constant motion leads to collisions and bouncing moving particles from high
concentration to low concentration
iii. Always looking to create an equilibrium or balance
B. Passive Transport
i. Uses no energy
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ii. Selectively permeable membrane: choosy about what it allows to pass based on size, shape,
and polarity
iii. Facilitated diffusion: transport proteins allowing smaller particles through – sugar and
water
C. Osmosis
i. Diffusion of water
ii. Movement of water from low concentrations of particles to higher concentration of
particles
iii. Hypertonic solutions: water moves out of area
iv. Hypotonic solutions: water mover into the area
v. Isotonic solutions: water is moving in and out equally so no net movement is observed
vi. Balance in Animal Cells
1. Hypotonic solutions the cell swells and may burst
2. Contractile vacuole is used to get rid of excess water entering the cell
3. Kidneys and gills aid in maintaining the water balance
4. Hypertonic solutions the cell shrinks and dehydrates
vii. Balance in Plant Cells
1. Firm in a hypotonic solution because water reinforces the cell wall
2. Limp when in a hypertonic solution because it is dehydrated
D. Active Transport
i. Require energy
ii. Movement from low concentrations to high concentrations: move against the concentration
gradient
E. Large Molecules
i. Vesicles are package created when large particles enter the cell
ii. Endocytosis: process of engulfing particles
iii. Pinocytosis: endocytosis process in which the plasma membrane pinches in
iv. Exocytosis: process of releasing particles from a cell
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IV. Cells Build Diversity of Products
A. Nucleus
i. Control center of the cell, contains the DNA
ii. Surrounded by a pair of membranes called the nuclear membrane
iii. Nucleolus: small masses in nucleus that help build ribosome
B. Ribosome
i. Site of protein synthesis: building of proteins from amino acids
C. Endoplasmic Reticulum
i. Transport system for a variety of molecules
ii. Rough-contain ribosome that will create proteins for membranes
iii. Smooth-no ribosome instead found in cytoplasm and create proteins and enzymes that will
be used in the cytoplasm of the cell
D. Golgi Apparatus
i.
Modifies, stores, and routes prepackaged particles
E. Vacuoles
i. Storage molecules for molecules
ii. Digestion, storage, excess water
F. Lysosomes
i. Type of vacuole that contains digestive enzymes
ii. Digest food particles and digest bacteria and other harmful substances that enter the body
V. Chloroplasts and Mitochondria and Energy
A. Chloroplasts: organelle found in plants that allow photosynthesis to occur
i. Filled by a green pigment called chlorophyll
B. Mitochondria: site of cellular respiration, power house, releases energy from glucose
molecules to form ATP
i. ATP: main energy source for cellular work, stored chemical energy
ii. Found in all types of cells
iii. Contains a highly folded membrane for more surface area
VI. Internal Support
A. Cytoskeleton: microtubules that help support organelles
B. Flagella and Cilia: structures that allow the cell to move
i. Flagella: long whip-like structure
ii. Cilia: short hair-like structures
C. Coordinated Units
i. The cell works as a single unit making it a living unit greater than the sum of its parts
ii. Organization of cells:
1. Organelles build cells
2. Cells build tissues
3. Tissues build organs
4. Organs build organ systems
5. Organ systems build organisms
23
Cell Project
You will work with your lab partner(s) (unless otherwise noted by your teacher) and create a 3-D model of
BOTH a plant and animal cells. Some useful materials are listed below:
1. egg cartons
5. construction paper
2. cereal boxes
6. paper clips
3. play dough
7. macaroni
4. tissue boxes
Be sure to include the following components in your project:
1. Include all organelles discussed in class and provide LABELS on your models
2. Compare and contrast plant cells and animal cells in paragraph form.
3. Describe the function of all organelles.
4. Explain how all the parts of a cell contribute to a living organism.
*Remember…have fun, be creative, and ask questions.
Due _________________ NO EXCEPTIONS!
Your grade will be determined by the following rubric:
Excellent = 16-20 points per box
Satisfactory = 11-15 points per box
Below Average = 0-10 points per box
Excellent
Satisfactory
Below Average
All organelles included
and labeled?
All organelles are present and
demonstrate the appropriate
shape and location. Labels are
legible and correct.
Most organelles are present
and demonstrate the
appropriate location. Labels
are legible and mostly correct.
Compare & contrast
plant and animal cells?
Plant cell parts that differ from
animal cell parts are described
and visa versa. Similar parts
are described. General
descriptions of cells are
provided (shape, size, color,
function, etc.).
All organelles have thorough
descriptions including
processes where necessary.
All information is correct.
Major plant cell parts that
differ from animal cell parts
are discussed and visa versa
but not all differences.
General descriptions of cells
are provided (shape, size, and
color).
All/some organelles have
descriptions with fairly
accurate descriptions of major
processes.
The majority of organelles are
missing or are mislabeled (or
not labeled), and are not in the
correct location. Labels are
not legible.
Some major plant cell parts
that differ from animal cells
parts are discussed but not all.
A poor/ no description of
similarities of cells are
provided.
Students show a clear
understanding of how all cell
parts work together using their
specific processes to maintain
a living organism. Students
also describe how plant cells
and animal cells can work
together to maintain an
ecosystem.
Students make use of a vast
assortment of materials.
Project shows much
time/effort/ care were
involved. Students provide a
unique project.
Students show a clear
understanding of how all cell
parts work together using their
specific processes to maintain
a living organism.
Functions of organelles?
Explanation of
interconnectedness?
Creativity?
Students make use of multiple
materials. Project shows
adequate time and effort were
used.
Some/no organelles have
descriptions but no major
processes are discussed.
Descriptions if included are
incorrect.
Students show a poor
understanding of
interconnectedness/ do not
provide correct information/
do not write this section.
Project lacks a range of
materials, legibility,
time/effort/care.
24
Chapter 7: The Working Cell: Energy from Food
“The more you lose yourself in something bigger than yourself, the more energy you will have.”
- Norman Vincent Peale
I. Sunlight Powers Life
a. Obtaining Food
i. Autotrophs: makes its own food
1. Photosynthesis: using light energy to make food (glucose)
2. Also known as producers
3. Chemosynthesis: using chemicals (sulfur) to make food
ii. Heterotroph: cannot make their own food
1. Also called consumers
2. Depend on autotrophs: herbivores
3. Carnivores eat others
4. Scavengers, omnivores, decomposers
b. Harvesting Energy in food
i. Cellular Respiration: aerobic process that converts food energy into the bonds of ATP
ii. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration recycle: water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and glucose
II. Food Stores Chemical Energy
a. Energy
i.
Electrons are pure energy
ii. Ability to perform work: preformed whenever object is moved against an opposing force
iii. Kinetic energy: energy in motion
iv.
Potential energy: energy that is stored
v. Thermal energy: energy as heat transfer: cannot be recaptured for work
b. Chemical Energy
i. Depends on the structure of the molecule – atoms form bonds – bonds are potential energy
due to the electrons – break the bonds – create kinetic energy
c. Putting Chemical Energy to Work
i. Cellular respiration breaks molecules apart to release electrons that are stored in the bonds
of ATP molecules
ii. Carbon dioxide, water, heat and H+ ions are also products
iii. Heat that is created helps you keep your body at a constant temperature and allows you to
be endothermic
d. Calories: units of energy found in the number of breakable bonds
III. ATP Provides Energy for Cellular Work
a. ATP as Energy
i. Adenosine triphosphate
ii. Electrons create the bonds between the phosphate molecules – when one is broken off,
energy is released
iii. ADP or adenosine diphosphate is created
b. ATP and Cellular Work
i. Energy released from ATP is used in another reaction
ii. Enzymes allow this to happen
25
c. ATP Cycle
i. ATP is continuously converted to ADP as your cells use the energy stored in the ATP
ii. When cellular respiration occurs ATP is created from the ADP molecules
IV. Electrons and Cellular Respiration
a. Relationship between Cellular Respiration and Breathing
i. Aerobic Process: uses oxygen to occur
ii. Breathing is the process of inhaling and exhaling air into and out of the lungs
iii. Respiration is the entire pathway of oxygen being inhaled, transported to the cells, used,
and carbon dioxide being transported out and exhaled
b. Equation
i. C6H12O6 + 6O2
6CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP
ii. Occurs in the mitochondria
iii. Electrons are pulled from the ATP into the reaction
V. Cellular Respiration Converts Energy in Food to ATP
a. Mitochondria
i. Found in all eukaryotic cells
ii. Inner membrane is highly folded for more surface area
iii. Enzymes are held within
b. Metabolism
i. All the chemical reactions within the body
ii. Enzymes speed these processes up
c. Steps
i. Glycolysis: process of breaking sugar down into pyruvic acid
1. Outside the mitochondria in the cytoplasm
2. Two ATP molecules needed to start process
3. Four gained at end – 2 net gain
ii. Krebs Cycle
1. Break down of pyruvic acid and releases
a. Carbon Dioxide
b.Electrons
c. H + ions
d.Enzymes NAD and FAD carry the electrons and H + ions to the electron transport
chain
iii. Electron Transport Chain (E.T.C)
1. Electrons move down the E.T.C. and energy is stored in ATP: ATP synthase
2. The last electron is oxygen
3. Now charged, opposites attract and water is formed
26
VI. Anaerobic Respiration
a. Fermentation in Muscle Cells
i. Muscles use ATP to contract
ii. Oxygen allows ATP to be created
iii. What happens when there is not enough oxygen supplied?
1. Fermentation: makes ATP without oxygen
2. Not enough ATP is created
3. By product is lactic acid – causes muscle cramps
b. Microorganisms
i. Anaerobic – does not use oxygen
ii. Yeast – produces alcohol and carbon dioxide as waste products
iii. Fungi and bacteria – cheese, yogurt, soy sauce, sauerkraut
Chapter 8: The Working Cell: Energy from Sunlight
“Goals provide the energy source that powers our lives. One of the best ways we can get the most from
the energy we have is to focus it. That is what goals can do for us; concentrate our energy”
- Denis Waitley
I. Photosynthesis uses Light to Make Food
a. Chloroplast: cellular organelle where photosynthesis takes place
i. Filled with green liquid: chlorophyll : traps light energy
ii. Found in mesophyll layer of leaf
iii. Inner membrane has thick liquid called stroma and disk-shaped sacs called thylakoids
iv. Stomata: pores on underside of leaf that allow gas exchange
b. Equation
i. 6CO2 + 6H2O + light
C6H12O6 + 6O2
ii. Photo = light, Synthesis = to make
iii. Light Reaction
1. Light is captured and electrons become excited
2. ETC = e- jump along and store excess energy in ATP
3. Water is split and Oxygen and Hydrogen are released
4. Enzyme NADP carries H+ ions and ATP to Calvin Cycle
iv. Calvin Cycle
1. makes sugar (glucose)
2. Uses H+ ions, ATP, and Carbon dioxide to create sugar
27
28
II. Light Reactions Convert Light to Chemical Energy
a. Light Energy and Pigments
i. Wavelengths – electrons that move certain speeds and create waves: electromagnetic
spectrum
1. Visible light – see color
2. UV light – shorter wavelengths, so more energy = Harmful
ii. Pigments – chemical that absorbs, reflects, transmits wavelengths
1. Green is seen when it is reflected and all others colors are absorbed
iii. Chromatography – separates pigments
b. Harvesting Light
i. When pigments absorb wavelengths their electrons become excited
ii. High energy states are unstable– jumps onto ETC and jumps storing excess energy in the
bonds of ATP
iii. Electrons need to be replaced – water is split: photolysis: and electrons are replaced
iv. Photosynthesis is the ultimate source of all the food you eat and all the oxygen you breathe
III. Global Impact
a. Carbon Cycle
i. Process by which CO2 moves from inorganic compounds to organic compounds : CO2
moves through the ecosystem
ii. Earth’s plants and other photosynthetic organisms make about 160 billion metric tons of
organic material per year
b. Global Climate
i. Plants use CO2 from the atmosphere, resulting in very large effect on the amount of CO2
left in the atmosphere
ii. Carbon dioxide makes up .03% of Earth’s atmosphere
iii. Layer of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere traps heat = greenhouse effect = global warming
29
Unit 3:
Genetics
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Vocabulary for Unit 3
Cell Reproduction
Inheritance
DNA
Missing Person Report
Human Inheritance
Karyotyping Report
DNA Technology
Cloning Debate
30
Vocabulary List for:
Cell Division
Directions: Please make flashcards of all the following words and study them for the
Exam.
1. Sexual reproduction: 2 parents needed to create genetically unique offspring
2. Asexual reproduction: 1 parent needed to create genetically identical offspring
3. Mitosis: cell division that produces 2 genetically identical diploid daughter cells
4. Meiosis:
cell division that produces 4 genetically different haploid daughter cells
5. Cancer: uncontrolled cell division that occurs because of damage to DNA
6. Sister chromatid: chromosomes that appear like X’s because it has a copy attached at centromere
7. Homologous chromosome: pairs of chromosomes with identical gene sequences (1m, 1d)
8. Sex chromosome: chromosomes that determine gender – X and Y
9. Diploid: has a full set of appropriate chromosomes
10. Haploid: has half set of appropriate chromosomes
11. Gamete: sex cells, egg and sperm
12. Zygote: fertilized eggs cell, diploid
13. Allele: one form of a trait or characteristic – (1m, 1d)
14. Homozygous: two matching alleles are the same
15. Heterozygous: two matching alleles are different
16. Phenotype: outward physical appearance – can be influenced by environment
17. Genotype: sequence of alleles written in the genes
31
Chapter 9: The Cellular Basis of Inheritance
I.
II.
All Cells Come From Cells
a. Repair and Growth
i. Replacement through division
ii. Dead cells, damaged cells, new cells are created through series of
division since egg was fertilized
b. Reproduction
i. Asexual Reproduction: single celled organism duplicates its
genetic material and splits to form two new identical cells
1. Plants, paramecium, amoeba
ii. Sexual Reproduction: two parents are involved to share genetic
information to produce unique offspring
1. Union of egg and sperm
2. Increases genetic variation
The Cell Cycle
a. Chromosomes and Cell Division
i. Nucleus contains DNA
1. Chromatin: combination of DNA and protein molecules
that are stretched out so as to be invisible
2. Chromosomes: tightly wound DNA that is visible
a. does this before division process begins
b. number varies by species
3. Sister chromatids: identical copy of chromosome attached
at the centromere
4. Human body cells: start with 46 chromosomes each with a
sister chromatid attached to create 2 cells each with 46
chromosomes
b. Cell Cycle
i. Life cycle of a cell
ii. Two phases
1. Interphase: 1st phase, longest, growth of cell, duplication of
chromosomes
2. Mitotic phase (mitosis): 2nd phase, division process
a. Mitosis: division of genetic material
b. Cytokinesis: cytoplasm division
32
III.
Division During Mitosis
a. Chromosomes are guided by spindles which grow from centrosomes
(centriole)
b. Interphase
c. Mitosis
i. Prophase: nucleus disappears, chromosomes appear, spindles form.
centrioles split
ii. Metaphase: chromosomes line up in middle and attach to spindle at
the centromere
iii. Anaphase: sister chromatids separate
iv. Telophase: chromosomes uncoil, new nuclear envelopes are
created, cells divide
v. Cytokinesis: cytoplasm separates
1. Animals: plasma membrane pinches in
2. Plants: cell plate forms down the middle
http://www.accessexcellence.org
33
IV.
Cancer
a. Tumors and Cancer
i. Out-of-control cells
ii. Benign tumor: abnormal mass of essentially normal cells
iii. Malignant tumors: masses that result from production of cancer
cells - stationary
iv. Cancer: disease caused by uncontrolled cell division that can lead
to death – can spread throughout the body
b. Treatment
i. Removed by surgery
ii. Radiation therapy or Chemotherapy
V.
Meiosis Functions in Sexual Reproduction
a. Homologous Chromosomes
i. Meiosis: cell division that produces different cells with half the
number of proper chromosomes
ii. Occurs in the sex organs of animals
1. Karyotyping: display of chromosomes from an individual
a. Shows that all individuals of a species have the
same number and types of chromosomes
b. Each chromosome has a twin that resembles its
shape and size : homologous chromosomes
i. One inherited from mom, one from dad
2. Homologous Chromosomes: matching pairs of
chromosomes
a. Carry same sequence of genes controlling the same
inherited characteristics
b. Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes
c. 22 pair look alike: autosomes
d. 23rd pair are different: sex chromosomes: determine
person’s sex : X-chromosome, Y-chromosome
iii. Diploid and Haploid cells
1. Diploid: having full set of chromosomes, 2n
a. Created through asexual reproduction, mitosis,
fertilization
2. Haploid: having half the number of chromosomes, n
a. Created through meiosis
b. Gametes: sex cells, egg and sperm
c. In sexual reproduction gametes fuse to form a
zygote which is diploid in number
b. Meiosis Process
i. If meiosis did not occur, cells involved in fertilization would have
too many chromosomes
34
ii. Meiosis Vs. Mitosis
1. Mitosis: asexual, daughter cells are identical to parent, 2n,
2 offspring created, 1 division
2. Meiosis: involved in sexual reproduction, daughter cells are
different from parent cell, 4 daughter cells are created, n, 2
divisions
iii. Division Process
1. Meiosis I
a. Prophase I: nucleus disappears, spindles form,
chromosomes form, pair with homologous
chromosome to form tetrads, crossing over occurs
b. Metaphase I: homologous chromosomes line up in
middle
c. Anaphase I: homologous chromosomes split
d. Telophase I: haploid in number, plasma membrane
pinches in
2. Meiosis II
a. Prophase II: spindle forms
b. Metaphase II: sister chromatids line up in middle
c. Anaphase II: sister chromatids split
d. Telophase II: new nucleus form around
chromosomes
e. Cytokinesis: cytoplasm splits
http://www.accessexcellenc.org
35
VI.
Meiosis and Genetic Variation
a. Assortment of Chromosomes
i. Lining up during metaphase is random
ii. Crossing over: exchange of genetic material between homologous
chromosomes
1. segments that switch are random
iii. Produces genetic recombination: single chromosome with new
combination of genetic information
b. Meiosis creates genetic variation that leads to unique and stronger
individuals
Meiosis and Fertilization are IMPORTANT for increasing variations which leads to
more Biodiversity which creates more stable ecosystems!!!!
36
Chapter 10: Patterns of Inheritance
I.
II.
Genetics
a. Blending Hypothesis of Inheritance
i. Trait: variation of a particular characteristic
ii. 1800’s it was suggested that offspring inherit traits from both parents
iii. Blending suggested that it was a combination that was passed on, but
problems of traits disappearing for generations and then resurfacing
caused the idea to be scrapped
b. Mendel’s Plant Breeding Experiments
i. Genetics: study of heredity
ii. Gregor Mendel worked on pea plants to study inheritance
iii. Hypothesis: Parents pass traits on to offspring separate and distinct factors
(genes) that are responsible for inherited traits
iv. True breeding in pea plants was established: self-fertilized
v. Mendel set up an experiment that cross-bred true breeding pea plants to
produce hybrids
Mendel’s Rules
a. Segregation
i. Crossed white and purple flowered pea plants
ii. Monohybrid cross: looking at one trait at a time, not a blend but instead
all purple
iii. Second round: ¾ purple ¼ white
iv. Reasoned that each plant must contain two factors (genes) that control
flower color
1. Alleles: alternative forms of a gene
2. Homozygous: both alleles are the same for a gene
3. Heterozygous: both alleles are different for a gene
4. Dominant: gene that appears to affect the trait
5. Recessive: gene that does not appear to affect the trait unless both
alleles are recessive
6. The two alleles separate (segregate) during the formation of
gametes (during meiosis)
b. Probability and Punnett Squares
i. Segregation of alleles is random
ii. Probability of what combinations will show can be determined with a
Punnett Square if you know the genotype of the parents
37
Punnett Square Worksheet
Directions: Read the paragraph and complete the following probabilities for genotypes and phenotypes for the resulting
offspring. Show all your work in the space provided.
1. Gregor Mendel determined that pea plants have two flower colors: purple and white. After careful study Mendel
determined that the purple allele is the dominant color. What are the probable genotypes and phenotypes for the offspring
when he crosses two heterozygous individuals?
Trait: ___________________
Key: ____________________
____________________
Genotype%
________________________
________________________
________________________
Phenotype %
________________________
________________________
2. Harry Potter decided to look into the genetics of being able to do magic. It turns out that the wizard allele is a recessive
trait and being a muggle is a dominant trait. What is the probability of Harry passing on the wizard allele to his offspring if
he is homozygous recessive and his wife Ginny is also?
Trait: ___________________
Key: ____________________
____________________
Genotype%
________________________
________________________
________________________
Phenotype %
________________________
________________________
3. Hypertrichosis syndrome also known as werewolf syndrome is when the body is covered in a thick layer of hair. This
syndrome is a rare autosomal disorder. The mutation is a dominant allele, creating hair to grow in excess. What is the
probability that a parent will pass this trait on to its offspring if they are heterozygous for the trait and their spouse is
homozygous recessive?
Trait: ___________________
Key: ____________________
____________________
Genotype%
________________________
________________________
________________________
Phenotype %
________________________
________________________
38
4. Blue scales are recessive traits in dragons. All other colors are dominant. What is the probability that a dragon will be
born with blue scales if one of his parents is homozygous red and his other parent is heterozygous white?
Trait: ___________________
Key: ____________________
____________________
Genotype%
________________________
________________________
________________________
Phenotype %
________________________
________________________
5. Hairy toes are a dominant trait in hobbits. If a homozygous dominant male has children with his homozygous dominant
wife, what are the probabilities of having children without hair on their toes?
Trait: ___________________
Key: ____________________
____________________
Genotype%
________________________
________________________
________________________
Phenotype %
________________________
________________________
6. Sickle cell anemia is a recessive blood disorder. The RBCs are made the wrong shape so they cannot carry oxygen well
and they get stuck in the bends of the circulatory vessels causing arthritis like symptoms. If two parents who are carriers of
sickle cell have children, what is the probability that their children will have sickle cell anemia?
Trait: ___________________
Key: ____________________
____________________
Genotype%
________________________
________________________
________________________
Phenotype %
________________________
________________________
7. Having six fingers is a dominant trait in humans. What is the probability of being born with six fingers if both parents are
homozygous recessive?
Trait: ___________________
Key: ____________________
____________________
Genotype%
________________________
________________________
________________________
Phenotype%
_________________________
_________________________
39
c. Genotype and Phenotype
i. Depending on the combination of alleles (dominant or recessive), traits
may be present but not show through
ii. Genotype: genetic makeup or combination of alleles
iii. Phenotype: observable traits (dominant)
d. Testcross
i. Organisms showing the recessive trait as its phenotype is showing what its
genotype is – used to determine genotype of an unknown (Is he
heterozygous or homozygous?)
ii. Testcross breeds an individual of an unknown trait with that of a known
individual
e. Independent Assortment
i. Dihybrid cross: Punnett square that looks at two traits at once
ii. During gamete formation a particular allele for one character can be paired
with either allele of another character
Dihybrid Crosses look at 2 traits at once
Two parents have both brown hair and brown eyes. It has been discovered that both brown hair
and brown eyes are dominant traits in people. What is the chance to get a blonde haired blue
eyed child if both parents are heterozygous for both traits?
Traits:
Combinations:
Dominant:
Parent One:
Parent Two:
Recessive:
40
Parent one has brown hair and blue eyes while parent two has red hair and green eyes. It has
been discovered that both brown hair and brown eyes are dominant traits in people. Red hair is a
recessive trait as are blue eyes. Green eyes are dominant over blue eyes but recessive to brown
eyes. What is the chance to get a red haired blue eyed child if parent one is heterozygous for hair
color and homozygous recessive for eye color and parent two is homozygous recessive for hair
color and heterozygous for eye color?
Traits:
Combinations:
Dominant:
Parent One:
Parent Two:
Recessive:
III.
Variations
a. Intermediate Inheritance
i. Two dominant = dominant, Heterozygous = dominant, two recessive
=recessive
ii. What happens when there are two different dominant traits competing?
1. Intermediate inheritance: blending of the traits
2. red + white = pink
b. Multiple Alleles
i. Several alleles for one gene usually exists
ii. EX) Blood type in humans – A, B, O
iii. Codominance: When both dominant traits show through
c. Polygenic Inheritance
i. Multiple genes can effect a trait: polygenic inheritance
ii. Skin, height, hair color
iii. The number of combinations increases with an increase in genes effecting
one trait
41
Human Blood Typing
Multiple Alleles – A, B, O
A and B are dominant over O while A and B are codominant, O is recessive
IV.
V.
d. Importance of Environment!!!!!
i. The expression of the trait (phenotype) is influenced by the
environment
ii. Temperature, nutrition, sunlight, water, pH levels, disease all affect the
expression of genes
Meiosis and Mendel’s Principles
a. Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
i. Genes are located on chromosomes, and behavior of chromosomes during
meiosis and fertilization accounts for inheritance patterns
ii. Gene locus: location on a gene: may be the same or different for each gene
b. Genetic Linkage and Crossing Over
i. Genetic Linkage: tendency for alleles on one chromosome to be inherited
together; closer they are on the chromosome the more likely they will be
inherited together
Sex-linked Traits
a. Sex-linked genes
i. XX chromosomes = female, XY chromosomes = male
ii. Genes located on one of the sex chromosomes is considered to be a sexlinked gene
iii. Most are found on the X-chromosome because it is a larger chromosome
iv. Males tend to be afflicted with the traits because there is nothing on the Ychromosome to shield it and females tend to be carriers
X
X
X
Y
42
Vocabulary List for:
DNA
Directions: Please make flashcards of all the following words and study them for the
Exam.
1. Virus: protein coat with genetic material inside
2. DNA: blueprints for life – coded
3. Nucleotide: monomer of DNA – sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base
4. Nitrogen base: A, T, C, G
5. Double helix: twisted ladder shape of DNA
6. DNA replication: process of copying DNA exactly
7. RNA: smaller copy of DNA made with U’s not T’s
8. Transcription: process that copies DNA code into mRNA
9. Translation: process that copies mRNA code into amino acids to build proteins
10. Codon: group of three nucleotides that code for 1 amino acid
11. Mutation: any change in the DNA sequence
12. Trisomy 21: mutation that results in having an extra 21st chromosome: Down Syndrome
13. Nondisjunction: process that fails to separate chromosomes during meiosis properly
14. Carrier: heterozygous individual
43
Chapter 11: DNA and the Language of Life
I.
Genes are Made of DNA
a.
b.
c.
II.
III.
IV.
“Transforming Factor”
i. Heat denatures bacteria –thus you get a fever when bacteria invade the body
ii. Griffith showed that although a deadly strain of bacteria could be made harmless with
heat, some factors in it are still active and may be passes to living bacteria
DNA is the Transforming Factor
i. Protein and DNA were looked at because of chromosomes
ii. With the use of enzymes Avery discovered that DNA was the transforming factor
Experiments with Viruses
i. Skepticism was abundant because the structure of DNA is simpler than protein
ii. Virus: package of nucleic acid wrapped in protein coat
1. Not made of cells
2. Non-living
3. Reproduce only inside a living cell
4. Bacteriophage: virus that reproduces inside a bacterium
iii. Protein coat stays on outside of host cell, so DNA is the hereditary material
Nucleic Acids Store Information in their Sequence
a. Building Blocks of DNA
i. DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid – hereditary material
ii. Nucleotides – building blocks of DNA
1. 4 types
2. Each one contains:
a. ring shaped sugar called deoxyribose
b. phosphate group
c. one nitrogen base (T, C, = large pyrimidines, A, G =
smaller purines)
iii. DNA strands
1. nucleotides are connected with covalent bonds
a. sugar – phosphate backbone
iv. DNA structure
1. Double helix –twisted ladder (Watson and Crick)
2. Complimentary base pairs (A-T, C-G), held together with
hydrogen bonds
DNA Replication
a. Template Mechanism
i. DNA is double stranded – if you know one sequence you can build the
other strand (complement)
ii. DNA Replication: copying the DNA molecule
b. Replication
i. DNA unzips at certain spots
ii. Complimentary nucleotides line up
iii. DNA polymerases (enzymes) create a covalent bonds between them
iv. Another enzyme creates a hydrogen bond between nitrogen bases
v. 2 copies are born
Genes Make Specific Proteins
a. One Gene, One Polypeptide
44
V.
i. Genotype: genetic makeup; sequence of nucleotide bases in its DNA
ii. Phenotype: outward appearance; function of the proteins created by DNA
iii. Genes code for certain sections of proteins
1. All must be intact if the protein wants to function properly
b. Information Flow
i. DNA has its own language that must be translated for the body to
understand
ii. Flow: DNA – RNA – Protein
iii. RNA: ribonucleic acid
1. Differences:
DNA
RNA
Sugar
Deoxyribose
Ribose
Bases
Thymine (T)
Uracil (U)
Strand
Double
Single
iv. DNA creates RNA through a process called transcription
v. The RNA moves out of the nucleus and heads to the ribosome
vi. Here it is translated from nucleic acids to amino acids through a process
called translation
vii. Codon: series of three bases that code for a single amino acid
viii. Series of codons creates a series of amino acids which build proteins
c. Triplet Code -- Chart is used to decode the codons
Steps to Make Proteins
a. Transcription: DNA to RNA
i. Three types of RNA molecules
1. mRNA (messenger RNA) carries the DNA code to the ribosome
2. tRNA (transfer RNA) brings amino acids to the ribosome
3. rRNA (ribosomal RNA) builds ribosomes
b. Editing the RNA Message
i. Prokaryotic cells use the RNA directly, Eukaryotic cells edit the RNA
ii. Introns: extra pieces of RNA code that are not needed to code for amino acids
1. Enzymes remove these and connect the exons through RNA splicing
iii. Exons: pieces of RNA that are kept and expressed for translation
VI.
c. Translation: RNA to Protein
i. Occurs in the ribosome
ii. tRNA and ribosomes are very important
iii. tRNA contain anticodons: complementary codon to a specific codon in the
mRNA
iv. mRNA carries message to ribosome which meets with tRNA and a protein
is formed by connecting the amino acids with a peptide bond
Mutations
a. Mutations: change in DNA sequence
i. Substitutions, deletions, insertions
ii. Change in the DNA means change in the amino acid sequence which
changes the proteins shape and function
b. Changes can occur during replication or meiosis or environmental factors
i. Mutagens: X-ray, UV light, chemicals
c. Changes can be detrimental or influential
45
46
Missing Person Report
You will use your knowledge of transcription and translation to
gather evidence from a crime scene to first determine if the
evidence from the crime scene is indeed a match for our missing
person. Then you will use additional information to help solve the
crime and determine if the missing person will be found before
disaster strikes and Christmas is lost.
Please be creative and neat with your handwriting for this project. You will be able to
earn extra credit if your story is creative and accurate. There are no partners for this
project. It will be due __________________________ NO EXECPTIONS!!!
Chapter 12: Human Genetics
I.
II.
Nucleus
a. DNA Packing in a Single Cell
i. Each chromosome is made from a single DNA molecule
ii. Humans have 46 chromosomes
iii. Genome: complete set of genetic material
iv. Histones: small proteins that DNA wraps itself around
b. Human Genome Project
i. 1990, scientist started to map the entire human genome
ii. 2000, a rough draft was completed
Accidents Affecting Chromosomes Can Cause Disorders
a. Down Syndrome
i. Trisomy 21: 3 of chromosome #21
ii. Error during meiosis
b. Nonseparation of Chromosomes
i. Failed pair of homologous chromosomes to separate: nondisjunction
ii. When a normal gamete fertilizes a gamete with an extra chromosome the
child will not survive unless the extra chromosome is #21
c. Damaged Chromosomes
i. Also known as mutations
ii. Duplication, deletion, inversion, translocation, repeating, breakage
d. Jumping Genes
i. Barbra McClintock (1940) discovered that genes can jump around from
one section of a chromosome to another and from one chromosome to
another
ii. Transposon
47
III.
IV.
Mendel’s Principles
a. Human Pedigrees
i. Pedigree: family tree that traces traits
ii. Dominant traits could be heterozygous or homozygous
iii. Some dominant traits can be harmful
iv. Recessive traits tend to be more severe
v. Carrier: a heterozygous individual who is not afflicted with the disorder,
but may pass it on to their offspring
vi. Sex-linked disorders tend to be recessive, women are mostly carriers
b. Predicting and Treating Disorders
i. Pedigrees can show if there is family history of a disease
ii. Genetic counselors collect information and analyze the data about a
particular couple and explain what their chances are for having children
with inheritable disorders
iii. Karyotyping, Amniocentesis, Blood tests
Genetic Changes Contribute to Cancer
a. Cancer Genes
i. Normally two classes of genes are needed to direct the production of
proteins that regulate growth and division of cells
1. Growth factors: proteins created to initiate cell division
2. Tumor-suppressor genes: create proteins that stop cell division
ii. Cells that produce oncogenes, (cancer-causing genes) can spread and outof-control cell division occurs
b. Inherited Cancer
i. Most cancer is not inheritable because it does not occur in gametes
ii. Sometimes a mutation can occur in a cell that will produce gametes and
these disorders can be inherited
48
Karyotyping Project
You will now work with your lab partner to create a child from a Petri dish who will be
both a carrier for a genetic disease and will have a genetic disease. After determining
characteristics of your child and determining the genetic disease your child has you will
watch Lorenzo’s Oil and answer the following questions. Then like Lorenzo’s parents
you will research your child’s genetic disease and write a research paper that clearly
defines what the disease is, how it works, and what you could do as parents of this child
to help them.
Lorenzo’s Oil Movie Questions
1. What symptoms does Lorenzo start to show first?
2. Why did the Odone’s think that living in Africa could place a role in Lorenzo’s
diagnosis?
3. What is ALD?
4. Who does it affect?
5. What does ALD do to the body and when? ( additional symptoms)
6. How is ALD inherited? (What chromosome? Who gave it to him?)
7. How does the Doctor respond to Lorenzo’s parents when they start asking what they
can do to help? (keep in mind that they bring information to the Dr. frequently)
8. How does the ALD parent support group respond to how the Odone’s work to find a
cure?
49
9. What did the parents do to help Lorenzo? (be specific)
a. Name 3 things that Augusto Odone does to help
i. _
ii. _
iii. _
b. Name 3 different things that Michaela Odone does to help
i. _
ii. _
iii. _
10. Name 3 other people (besides his parents) who help Lorenzo either directly or
indirectly and describe what they do to help.
a. _
b. _
c. _
11. What does the oil do to correct the symptoms of ALD?
12. According to the results shown in this movie why is understanding genetics important
for everyone and not just for Doctor’s and scientist?
50
Vocabulary List for:
Genetic Frontiers
Directions: Please make flashcards of all the following words and study them for the
Exam.
1. Plasmid: small ring of DNA found in bacteria, can be manipulated
2. Restriction enzyme: cuts DNA in specific locations
3. GMO: Genetically Modified Organism
4. Transgenic: GMO with DNA from another species
5. Cloning: process of copying an organism with use of live cells
6. PCR: Polymerase Chain Reaction – process of copying DNA fast w/o the use of live cells
7. Gel electrophoresis: process of separating DNA fragments by length
8. DNA fingerprint: unique pattern created as a result of gel electrophoresis
9. Cellular differentiation: specialization of cells by turning genes on or off
10. Stem cell: cells that have the potential to become any part of the organism
51
Chapter 13: Frontiers of Genetics
I.
II.
Manipulating DNA
a. Beginnings
i. Biotechnology: the use of organisms to perform practical tasks
ii. Manipulating DNA
iii. Escherichia coli (E. coli) most commonly used bacterium for gene
manipulation
iv. Bacteria make a connection and share information (sort of sexual
reproduction), viruses can transmit information, bacteria can pick it up
from their surroundings
v. Recombinant DNA Technology: combines genes from different sources
(species) into one DNA molecule
b. Frontiers
i. Sequencing all kinds of species genomes
ii. Relating information from one species to another
iii. Medicine and Agriculture
Engineering Bacteria
a. Introduction
i. Bacteria contain plasmids: small circular DNA separate from larger
chromosomes
ii. Once thought to be Junk DNA now useful in transferring DNA from one
species to another
iii. Resistance: organisms ability to have immunity to a substance
1. Antibiotics
iv. Gene cloning
b. Cutting and Pasting DNA – Genetic Engineering
i. Isolate desired trait from host cell
1. Restriction enzymes: cut DNA
ii. Insert into plasmid
1. Splicing: ligase enzyme pastes sticky ends together
iii. Place in new host cell
1. Vector: vehicle of transport
a. Biological – plasmid, mechanical – gene gun
iv. Clone
1. Make identical copies
2. Mitosis of host cell or of the plasmids
c. Case Study
i. Libraries of Cloned Genes
1. Restriction enzymes cut the entire chromosome up
2. Only one specific gene is needed
3. Genomic library: complete collection of DNA fragments
ii. Probes
52
III.
1. Knowing part of the base sequence of the desired gene helps
scientists find the correct gene in the library
2. Nucleic acid probe: complementary radioactively labeled nucleic
acid molecule
3. Probe attaches to desired gene and is separated from the rest
d. Useful Products
i. Bacteria that clean up waste products
ii. Useful chemicals
iii. Fertilizers and Pesticides
iv. Therapeutic drugs
1. Insulin: regulates sugar uptake into cells
Engineering Plants and Animals
a. Plants
i. GMO (genetically modified organism): acquired one or more genes by
artificial means
ii. 2000 ½ the soybean crops grown were GMO
iii. Soil bacterium are used to genetically alter plants
b. Animals
i. Harder to modify
ii. Extracting egg cells and sperm cells
iii. Test-tube environment – fertilized and new gene injected
iv. Segregate mother used for development
c. Cloning Animals
i. Dolly
ii. Egg is extracted and all the DNA is removed
iii. Full set of DNA from a body cell (skin cell) is extracted and placed in the
empty egg cell
iv. Stimulated with electricity to simulate fertilization
v. Offspring is identical to parent cell
d. Controversy
i. Harmful to humans?
ii. Spread to nearby plants or animals?
iii. Cloning of plants happens naturally, how about animals?
The Debate about Cloning
There are many different facets to cloning. From cloning sequences of DNA to
cloning entire genomes, scientists have the capabilities to produce exact replicas of entire,
complex organisms. What does the future hold for this powerful capability? How will
humans respond to this ability to create life?
This topic has the potential to create a very intelligent and endless debate. There
are many issues to discuss, among them are: cloning humans, cloning organs, cloning
tissues, cloning cells and cloning genes. I would like you to consider the cloning of
humans.
53
Task:
You will do one of the following:
1) A) Be placed on a team that is either for or against human cloning.
B) Formally debate your viewpoint with the opposing team
OR
2) A) Write a 2 page paper that defines, explains, and describes cloning
techniques and
B) Watch the debate and write a one-page essay summarizing the key points
and state and justify which side you think won the debate.
Directions:
For #1
First: Do background research. In order to hold a strong position, it is
imperative that you have knowledge of the subject on both sides of the issue. Your
research should include textbooks, web sites, journal articles, periodicals, newspapers,
databases, etc.
Second: Establish your position. Take a stand. After researching different
cloning techniques and understanding how cloning occurs you should be able to develop
your own opinion about the possible benefits and downfalls of cloning.
Third: Build your argument. Make your case. Support your position. Prepare
your defenses. DO YOUR RESEARCH!!
Each team member must reference:
2- web sites (must be reputable)
1- periodical/newspaper
1- book
Building an argument as a TEAM you WILL:
1) Prepare your opening statement which introduces the techniques and methods
of cloning and which clearly states your position. (3 minutes)
2) Prepare two well-developed arguments to back your position. (3 minutes each)
3) Prepare a closing (most powerful) statement. (1 minute)
4) Prepare at least 2 questions for the opposing team. After each statement from
one team, the other team will be allowed 1 minute to question the person who
gave the previous statement.
Total of 12 minutes per team
For #2
First: Your paper must be 12 font, Times New Roman, double spaced with a
WORKS CITED page attached. You are looking to define and explain cloning, as well
as descriptions of various cloning technology.
54
Second: After watching the debate you are to separate into two groups depending
on who you think won the debate. Then as a group you are to write a one page essay that
summarizes the key points made by the two teams and state and justify who you think
won. This needs to be typed, double spaced, 12 font, Times New Roman, and the names
of everyone in the group who helped must be placed on it.
Grading Policy:
1- Are the research requirements fulfilled and documented appropriately?
2- How well developed and accurate was your statement?
3- Generally, how knowledgeable were you about cloning?
** To evaluate #3, I reserve the right to intervene at any time to question any particular
student.
Note:
The debate will be held during class and lab times on
____________________________. Be sure you are present for the debate or you will
not receive the grade based on the debate. You will then be required to do a 3 page
paper.
IV.
V.
Applications
a. Mass-Producing DNA
i. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): techniques that makes many copies of a
certain segment of DNA without using living cells (in test-tube)
ii. Time for cloning is cut way down from using living cells
iii. Helps to identify specific DNA fragments
b. Comparing DNA
i. Gel electrophoresis: technique used to sort molecules based on length
1. DNA is cut with restriction enzymes
2. Placed in wells of gel
3. Electricity flows through and separates the fragments
4. Specific bans are created
ii. Genetic markers: radioactive tags used to identify particular stretches of
DNA that are different among individuals
iii. DNA Fingerprinting: unique ban pattern formed by every individual
(except identical twins or triplets)
1. Introns make up 97% of the genome
2. Introns are what makes you different from everyone else
Control Mechanisms Switch Genes On and Off – Cellular Differentiation
a. Regulation of Genes in Prokaryotes
i. Prokaryotes are simple so cannot turn genes on or off
ii. Can change its function in response to environment
iii. Operon: cluster of genes and their control sequences
iv. Promoter: site where RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA
55
v. Operator: control switch that says whether or not RNA polymerase can
attach not
vi. Repressor: a protein that functions by binding to the operator and blocking
the attachment of RNA polymerase
b. Regulation of Genes in Eukaryotes
i. More elaborate, but same basic principles
ii. Transcription factors: regulate transcription by binding to those promoters
or to RNA polymerase
iii. Regulated by chemical signals in cell
iv. Gene expression: transcription and translation of genes into proteins
c. From Egg to Organism
i. After fertilization the cell goes through mitosis
ii. All cells are the same with no difference
iii. The position of new cells promotes expression of particular groups of
genes, depending on what its neighbor is
iv. Cellular differentiation: when cells become increasingly specialized in
structure and function
v. This is why you do not have a hand growing out of your liver
d. Stem Cells
i. Stem cells: cells that are undifferentiated, have the potential to become
any kind of cell
ii. Embryonic stem cells are easier to change into any kind of cell, then stem
cells present after birth
Fertilization Equation
Meiosis
Mitosis
Stem Cells
egg + sperm
Zygote
Cleavage
Marula
Blastula
+
Organism
Gastrula
Cellular Differentiation
56
Unit 4:
Classification
&
Evolution
1. Vocabulary for Unit 4
2. Big Bang Theory
3. Classification
4. Evolution
5. Technology and Evolution Paper
57
Vocabulary List for:
Classification & Evolution
1. Species: smallest taxonomic group, individuals that can breed and produce fertile offspring
2. Dichotomous Key: biological key that uses traits and steps to identify an organism
3. Classification: process by which people group things
4. Adaptation: characteristic or behavioral change in an organism due to changing environment
5. Evolution: gradual change over long period of time
6. Natural Selection: those with traits well suited to the environment survive, reproduce, and pass traits
to offspring
7. Homologous Structures: different function, same structure, evolved from common ancestor
8. Vestigial Structures: homologous structures which have lost most or all of their use and are
disappearing
9. Analogous Structures: same function, different structure, evolved in a common environment
10. Embryology: study of similarities in developing embryos – longer they are alike, more close the
relationship
11. Population: group of species in the same place at the same time
12. Variation: differences
13. Gene Pool: all the alleles and genes present in one population at the same time
58
Chapter 14 and 15
1. The Beginning
a. Big Bang Theory
i. 4.6 billion years ago – earth was molten rock
ii. 3.9 billion years ago – water formed
iii. 3.5 billion years ago – life begins in the ocean
1. Single celled prokaryotes
a. Bacteria gives rise to protists
b. Protists give rise to fungus, plants and animals
2. Continuous changes to Earth means continuous changes to the
species arising – if you have the correct adaptations you will
survive, reproduce and genes will carry on
b. Origins of life
i. Which came first? The chicken or the egg?
ii. If life comes from other life and Earth started with no life, then how did
life get here?
1. Panspermia – “seeds” landed on Earth from space – Alien origin
2. Spontaneous generations
a. Non-living things give rise to life
b. Dead organisms – meat has flies so flies must come from
the meat
c. Air – air flow brings life that mixes with the water and
life is created
3. Biogenesis
a. Life gives rise to life
b. Asexual reproduction – cells create other identical cells
c. Sexual reproduction – unique offspring created
d. Biotic life formed from non-living materials
i. Primordial soup – materials were in the oceans,
sunlight and lightening triggered chemical
reactions
ii. Since no free-oxygen in atmosphere, first
organisms where anaerobic and photosynthetic
iii. Oxygen released into the air + lightening builds
the ozone layer – building up the atmosphere we
have today.
c. Life as we know it today
i. Share 6 characteristics
1. All living things are composed of cells
2. Cells are organized
3. Maintain homeostasis
4. Grow and Reproduce
5. Consume energy
6. Must change over time due to mutations and/or natural selective
pressures
59
2. Classification
a. Logical ordering of life into groups based on certain characteristics
b. Why do we do this?
i. Organization
ii. Easier to communicate information
c. Taxonomy
i. System we use to classify organisms
ii. Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, species
iii. Binomial Nomenclature
1. Internationally accepted method of scientifically naming
organisms
2. Genus species (G. species)
3. species is a distinct form of life that can interbreed and produce
fertile offspring
iv. How we classify
1. Then - Linnaeus – habitat and physical features
2. Now – ancestors, embryology, protein structure and DNA
(phylogeny)
a. We can use a dichotomous key to help shuffle through
features to determine what taxonomic group an unknown
organisms is classified as.
3. Evolution
a. Gradual change over a very long time
b. Lamarck – suggested that traits were acquired throughout a life time and passed
on to the next generation
i. If a giraffe stretched its neck for gathering food, then its offspring would
be born with a longer neck
ii. Not quite right but on the right track!
c. Charles Darwin – father of evolution
i. Naturalist who traveled around the world and studied plants and animals
ii. Visited the Galapagos Islands
iii. When he got home from his 22 year trip on the HMS Beagle he studied
traits and how they were passed on with artificial selection
iv. He compared the traits of the animals and places he recovered the
animals from and applied:
1. Reproduction – over production of offspring and only a few
survive
2. Limited resources encourage competition
3. Variations among individuals in a population allow for different
phenotypes
v. Darwin saw a pattern emerge and could not deny that it could be
reproduced with his experiments with artificial selection
vi. Natural Selection – survival of the fittest – organisms with traits fit for
their environment survive and pass those desirable traits on to the next
generation
d. Adaptations
i. An alteration or adjustment in structure or habits, often hereditary, by
which a species or individual improves its condition in relationship to its
environment
60
ii. Structural
1. Mimicry
a. Act like something dangerous even when they are not
2. Camouflage
a. To blend in with surroundings
3. Homologous structures – common evolutionary origin
a. Suggests a common ancestor
4. Analogous structures – similar in function but not in structure or
origin
a. suggest a common environment or selective pressures
5. Vestigial structures – reduced in function
a. suggests that it is undergoing significant change
iii. Physiological – changes in metabolism
1. Lactose tolerance and intolerance
iv. Embryonic development
1. The longer the embryos look the same, the closer related they are
v. Genetic comparisons
1. The more DNA they share, the more closely related they are
e. Mechanisms of Evolution
i. Population Genetics
1. Populations evolve not individuals
2. Natural selection acts on phenotype through genotypes
3. Gene pool – entire collection of genes from a population, used to
determine allelic frequency to determine if a population is
evolving
ii. Evolution can only occur when there is a break in the environmental
homeostasis
1. Mutations arise – if they are beneficial they help the individual
survive and pass the mutation on to offspring which introduces
the trait into the population
2. Genetic drift – as populations interbreed genes from one
population are introduced into the other and the genes move
across the continent
a. Migrations will aid in genetic drift as well
b. Random!
c. Bottleneck Effect – when populations are dropped to a
few and then breed to build the population up again
d. Founder Effect – genetic drift to start a new population
i. New Islands
ii. Zoos
3. Natural selection is the greatest change maker
a. Not random - Selecting agents in the environment push
for certain genes to do well
b. Stabilization selection
c. Directional selection
d. Disruptive selection
4. Speciation – only when interbreeding or production of fertile
offspring is prevented
a. Physical barriers
i. Geographic isolation
ii. Reproductive isolation
61
f.
b. Chromosome numbers change
i. Polyploid speciation – plants do this
5. Evolution occurs in patterns
a. Time involved
i. Gradualism – slow change over long period of
time
ii. Punctuated equilibrium – fast change over short
period of time – usually because of a
cataclysmic change
b. Divergent evolution or Adaptive radiation
i. Start with a common ancestor
ii. Populations move into different environments
and adapt – changing into two different species
c. Convergent evolution
i. Different species that change into something
similar because they are in similar environments
and exposed to similar selective pressures
Primate Evolution
i. Contrary to what people say – Humans did not evolve from apes –
Humans and apes have a common ancestor
ii. Primate – taxonomic group who share common traits
1. Opposable thumbs
2. Large complex brain
3. Eyes in front of the head
4. Mobility of joints
iii. 65 million years ago
1. Prosimians (small) mammals evolved in Africa and spread to the
New World – mostly nocturnal
2. Anthropoids (large) evolved in Africa from a group of
Prosimians that remained in Africa – complex brains, 3 different
groups
3. Humans developed from one line of the Anthropoids
a. Early population of ape-like Anthropoids became
bipedal
i. Changes in where the foramen magnum is
located
b. Australopithecine – had ape/human characteristics
i. Australopithecus africanus – structure of ape
and human
ii. Australopithecus afarensis – earliest hominid
species – “Lucy”
iii. Homo habilius – used tools (2.4 mya)
iv. Homo erectus – fire and larger brain – first to
leave Africa and spread through Europe and
Asia (1.8 mya)
v. Homo sapiens – Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon
Man (250,000 years ago)
vi. Homo sapien sapien – Today’s human is a
descendant of Cro-Magnon Man
62
Paper on Unit 4 Question
Does DNA technology aid in evolution?
Your task is to write a one page paper answering the above question. You need to
provide factual evidence that supports your points that argue for or against DNA
technology aiding evolution.
Paper
 One page typed
 Answer the question
 Provide at least three points that support your answer with factual evidence that
supports your point
 Use vocabulary
 Make sure you have a conclusion that summarizes your thoughts and describes
where this information can help in the future. (Example: how humans are
manipulating the environment today and how that will effect evolution in the
future with regards to the 6th mass extinction we are supposedly in.)
Graded
 10 points for it being a whole page and typed
 10 points for answering the question
 10 points each for using specific points to support your answer
 20 points total for use of factual evidence that makes sense in context to your
point
 20 points for understanding found in your conclusion for future usage
 10 points for vocabulary usage
Date Assigned _________________
Date Due _______________
63
Unit 5:
Kingdoms
1. Vocabulary for Unit 5
2. 6 Kingdoms and Viruses
3. Animal Project
64
Vocabulary List for:
Kingdoms
1. Prokaryote: unicellular organism without nucleus
2. Eukaryote: organisms whose cells have a nucleus
3. Pathogen: organisms who cause disease or illness
4. Retrovirus: virus that contains RNA and reverse transcriptase
5. Vaccine: injection containing weakened or dead state of a virus and causes the body to make antibodies
6. Pseudopod: arm like projections used by amoebas for movement
7. Cilia: short hair-like projections on cells
8. Flagella: long whip-like projections on cells
9. Lichen: symbiotic relationship between algae and fungus
10. Stomata: holes on the underside of a leaf for gas exchange
11. Guard cell: cells on either side of stomata used to open and close it
12. Xylem: vascular tissue that carries water up from the roots to the rest of the plant
13. Phloem: vascular tissue that carries sugar down from the leaves to the rest of the plant
14. Blastula: hollow ball of stem cells
15. Gastrula: layered ball of cells that under go cellular differentiation
16. Ectotherm: organisms who use the environment to regulate body temperature
17. Endotherm: organisms who use internal metabolism to regulate body temperature
18. Decomposer: breaks down dead organic material and recycles it into the environment
65
Bacteria – 2 Kingdoms
Archaebacteria




simple
unicellular
prokaryote
extreme habitats
Eubacteria





simple
unicellular
prokaryote
most common
many different metabolisms
o heterotrophs
o parasitic
o saprobes
o photosynthetic
o chemosynthetic
Structure:
Capsule (some)
Cell wall
Plasma membrane
Pili
DNA
Plasmids
Ribosomes (some)
Penicillin – kills bacteria by creating holes in the cell walls – creating a hypotonic
environment
Reproduction:
 asexual – binary fission
 sexual – conjugation
Importance:
 creates foods we eat
 create antibiotics
 cause disease
 recycle nutrients – decomposers
 nitrogen fixation for plants
 create oxygen – photosynthesis
66
Viruses – No Kingdom because NONLIVING
1. Nonliving (does not show characteristics of life)
a. Made of protein coat and either DNA or RNA
b. Use a living host cell to reproduce
i. Bacteriophage: what a virus is called if it uses a bacteria as a host cell
2. Recognition
a. Protein coat = particular shape therefore fits like a puzzle piece into a receptor site
b. Receptor cells (sites) allow it inside the cell if it recognizes it by shape
c. Only infect specific species / cells because of the shape
3. Life Cycles
a. Lytic cycle: contains RNA
1. Destroy host cell’s DNA
2. Reprogram host cell’s metabolism
3. Host cell creates copies of virus’s genetics and protein coat
4. When full, virus burst (lysis) out of cell killing it
b. Lysogenic Cycle: contains DNA
1. Injects DNA which becomes a part of host’s DNA = provirus
2. Dormant or hides for long periods of time
3. Provirus pops out = Lytic cycle
c. Retrovirus
1. Called retroviruses because always changes protein coat = can never be
recognized by immune system.
2. Have RNA that needs to change to DNA to be incorporated into host’s DNA
3. Reverse Transcriptase: RNA to DNA
EXAMPLE:
HIV = Human Immunodeficiency Virus
AIDS = last stage of HIV where the individual’s immune system is
extremely low to non-existent (dies from other diseases, usually
pneumonia).
HIV NOTES:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
67





Kingdom Protista
simple
most are unicellular
resemble plant, fungus and animal characteristics
eukaryote cells
both sexual and asexual reproduction
Animal-like
Plant-like
Fungus-like
Protozoan
Algae
Slime molds
Unicellular
Unicellular & Multicellular
Netlike
Heterotrophic
Autotrophic
Produce ½ of all oxygen
1-4 kinds of chlorophyll
No-roots, stems, leaves
Decomposers
Red tide, algal blooms
Mold foods
Motile: Cilia, Flagella,
Pseudopodia, Parasitic
Amoebic dysentery, malaria
Amoeba and Paramecium
Kelp
Delicate
Slime mold
Economy




Food (seaweed)
Disease – amoebic dysentery, malaria
Red-tide (effect fishing)
Decomposers (digest wood)
68
Kingdom Fungi
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Characteristics:
a. Live in all kinds of habitats
b. Most grow best in temperatures between 20C and 30C, others like colder temps
c. Have cell walls and are anchored to the soil –like plants
Structures:
a. Hyphae –long filaments
b. Mycelium –network of hyphae
c. Chitin –cell wall made up of complex carbohydrates (not cellulose)
d. Septa –cross walls that separate hyphae contain pores
e. Pores –flow of cytoplasm
f. Multicellular
Heterotrophic:
a. Have extracellular digestion – digest food outside the body
b. Excess is recycled back into the environment
Adaptations: spores, lightweight for wind dispersal, use of animals for dispersal
Reproduce:
a. Asexual reproduction: budding, fragmentation, and spores
b. Sexual reproduction: two haploid gametangium come together to produce a diploid
zygospore
Significance:
a. Decomposers
b. Parasites
c. Mutualistic partners
d. Food
e. Medicine: antibiotics are derived from them
Note:
Lichens: symbiotic relationship between fungus and green algae. They need only light,
minerals, and air to live.
69
Kingdom Plantae
1. Characteristics:
a. Multicellular
b. Eukaryote
c. Cell walls made of cellulose (complex carbohydrate)
d. Waxy waterproof coating
e. Root system
2. Structures:
a. Roots:
i. Absorbs water and nutrients, only source of minerals is from the soil
ii. Must penetrate the ground with roots
iii. Tip (apical meristem) is hard to dig towards gravity
iv. Anchors plant
v. Nitrogen fixation occurs in the nodules (homes of bacteria)
b. Cell walls:
i. Grows away from gravity
ii. Cellulose strengthens the walls so it can stand up right
c. Stem:
i. Transportation
1. Xylem: moves water and nutrients from roots to leaves
2. Phloem: moves food (glucose) from leaves to rest of plant
ii. Monocot – non-woody plants
1. Floral parts show in multiples of 3’s
2. Leaf veins are usually parallel
3. Vascular bundles found throughout
iii. Dicot – woody plants
1. Floral parts in multiples of 4’s or 5’s
2. Leaf veins net-like
3. Vascular bundles positioned in a ring of the stem
a. Growth rings
d. Leaves:
i. Waxy covering to keep water loss to a minimum
ii. Stomata – openings or pores
iii. Guard cells – regulates opening and closing
1. open during day for gas exchange
2. closed at night to keep water in
iv. Photosynthesis happens here
e. Growth:
i. Hormone called auxins promote cell elongation
ii. Influenced by light and gravity
iii. Bend toward light
70
3. Reproduction:
a. Seeds:
i. Contains food supply and embryo
ii. Do not need water for sperm to travel
iii. Cotyledon- sheath that covers embryo
b. Spores:
i. Need water for sperm to reach egg
ii. Sexual reproduction
c. Altering stages or generations:
i. Gametophytes (n) – gametes
ii. Sporophyte (2n) –adult
d. Flowering parts:
i. Petal – usually colorful and attracts insects for pollination
ii. Sepal – Not a true petal, usually used for protection
iii. Stamen: male reproductive parts
1. Anther – contains sperm (pollen)
2. Filament – holds the anther above the pistil
iv. Pistil: female reproductive parts
1. Stigma – sticky to grab pollen from air or insect
2. Style – tube that the pollen moves down to ovary
3. Ovary- contains egg of plant and is where fertilization occurs
71
Kingdom Animalia
1. Animal Characteristics:
a. Multicellular Eukaryote
b. Feed on other organisms
c. Ways to move to capture food
d. No cell walls; cells are adapted for specific purposes
2. Cell Development:
a. Fertilization creates zygote
b. Zygote divides by cleavage
c. Divides to create blastula Folds inward to create gastrula
i. Outside is called ectoderm and creates skin and nerves
ii. Inside is called endoderm and creates digestive system
d. Continues to create mesoderm
e. Middle and creates muscles, circulatory system, and reproductive tract
3. Fertilization Equation
4. Organism’s body shape becomes more complex as evolution continues
Body Symmetry
Body Cavity
Skeletons
Asymmetrical
Acoelomate (no cavity)
Internal structure
Radial symmetry
Pseudocoelomate (no
Invertebrates (exoskeleton
membrane)
or endoskeleton)
Bilateral Symmetry
Coelomate (true cavity with Vertebrates (endoskeleton)
membrane)
Endo means inside
Exo means outside
Meso means middle
72
Phylum
Porifera
Cnidarians
Platyhelminthes
Nematode
Annelidea
Molluska
Characteristics
 Asymmetrical
 Varity shapes and
colors
 2 cells thick
 Live in water
 Sessile
 Filter feed





Radial symmetry
One body opening
2 cells thick
Nerve net
2 body forms:
(Medusa and
Polyp)
 Acoelomate
 One body opening
 3 cell layers thick
 Pseudocoelomate
 Two body
openings
 Tapered ends
 Most parasitic
 Coelomate
 Two body
openings
 Bilateral symmetry
 Segmented
 Coelomate
 Two body
openings
 Bilateral symmetry
 Muscular foot
 Mantel
Adaptations
 Flagella inner
cells for filter
feeding
 Spicules used
for skeleton and
to create
gametes
 Can reorganize
within one hour
if separated
 Nematocyst
(capsule with
poison)
 Inner layer
digestion
Reproduction
Organisms
 Sexual
reproduction
(hermaphrodites)
 Asexual
reproduction
(budding)
Sponges
 Asexual
reproduction
(budding) Polyp
 Sexual
reproduction
(external) Medusa
Jellyfish
Hydrozoans
Coral
 Free living
(extracellular
digestion, eye
spot, primitive
brain)
 Parasitic (hook
to attach, no
nerves or
muscles)
 Thick outer
covering to
prevent from
being digested
 Hermaphrodite
 Fission
 Life cycle that
includes several
organisms
Flatworms
Planarian
Tapeworm
Fluke
 Hermaphrodite
Roundworms
 Each segment
has own
muscles, brain,
and excretory
organs
 Gizzard for
grinding soil
 Gastropod – 1
shelled, radula,
first to have
gills
 Bivalve-2 shells,
filter feed, use
cilia
 Cephalopods –
head-footed, no
foot, 8 tenticals,
radula, complex
brain
 Hermaphrodite
 Internal
fertilization
Segmented
worms
Earthworms
leaches
 Sexual
reproduction
(external and
internal)
Snails
Slugs
Oysters
Muscles
Octopus
Squid
73
Phylum
Characteristics
Adaptations
Reproduction
Organisms
Echinodermata




 Water vascular
system
 Tube feet
 Sexual
reproduction
(external)
Sand dollar
Starfish
Sea urchin
Sea cucumber
Arthropoda





 Sexual
reproduction
(internal or
external)
 Hermaphrodite
 Parthenogenesis
Arachnids
Crustaceans
Centipedes
Millipedes
Insects
Coelomate
Radial symmetry
Spiny skin
Important to
population ecology
Coelomate
Bilateral symmetry
Jointed appendages
Exoskeleton
Body segments
Arachnids
Crustaceans
Centipedes
Millipedes
Insects
 No thorax
 No antennae
 4 pair walking
legs
 Mandibles
 Mandibles
 2 pair antennae
 2 compound
eyes on movable
stalks
 5 pair legs
 Flat,
carnivorous, 1
pair legs per
segment
 Round,
herbivore, 2 pair
legs per segment
 3 body segments
 1 pair antennae
 3 pair walking
legs
 2 compound
eyes
Spiders
Scorpions
Mites
Ticks
Lobsters
Shrimp
Crayfish
Barnacles
Pill bugs
Flies
Beetles
Butterflies
Moths
Walking stick
Bugs
Chordata
All Chordates organisms have the following characteristics:
1. Notocords: long, semi-rigid rod
o Invertebrates: allow for more powerful side to side movement
 Sea squirt and lancelets
o Vertebrates: becomes the backbone
 Fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals
2. Dorsal nerve cord: spinal cord
3. Gill slits
4. Muscle blocks and tails
74
Group
Fishes
Class
Angnatha
Chondrichthys
Osteichithyes
Amphibians
Amphibia
Reptiles
Reptilia
Birds
Aves
Mammals
Placental
Marsupial
Monotreme
Characteristics






2 chambered heart
Gills
Scales
Ectothermic
Live in water
External Fertilization
 Double Life (water then land)
 Ectothermic
 2 chambered heart as tadpole then 3
chambered heart as adult
 Gills and fins as tadpole then legs and
some have lungs
 Skin is important for gas exchange
 External Fertilization
 Scaly skin
 Claws on toes
 3 chambered heart (except some of the
largest)
 Internal Fertilization
 Ectothermic
 Have feathers that are lightweight scales,
used for insulation and flight, camouflage
 Muscles are attached to the sternum for
flight
 4 chambered heart
 Endothermic
 Bones are thin and hollow
 Endothermic
 Have hair
 Breath oxygen from the air
 4 chambered heart
 Give birth to live young (except for
monotremes)
 Nurse their young using mammary glands
 Complex nervous system and highly
developed convoluted brain
Organisms
Jawless Fishes
Suckerfish
Cartilage Fishes
Sharks
Rays
Bony Fishes
Trout
Bass
Salmon
Seahorse
Caudata (Salamanders
and Newts)
Anura
(Frogs and Toads)
Apoda
(Legless caecilians)
Squamata
(Snakes and Lizards)
Chelonia
(Turtles)
Crocadilia
(Crocodiles and
Alligators)
Owls
Hawks
Eagles
Song birds
Woodpeckers
(Have internal
development in a
uterus and pass
materials from mother
to child through the
placenta)
Humans
Dogs
Cats
Mice
(Have internal
development but most
of it takes place in the
mother’s pouch)
Kangaroo
Sugar Glider
(Develop in an egg)
Duckbilled Platypus
Spiny Anteater
75
Animal Project
Directions: You and your partner will be given an animal phylum and you will need research
enough information to teach a 10 min. “mini” class about that group of animals. You must have
a visual aid (worksheet, poster, pamphlet…etc.) to use during your presentation. NOTE: Since you
have the choice of your partner you must choose wisely. You are BOTH held responsible for the outcome of the
project. Work together, get help if needed and don’t leave things to the last minute. You are welcome to work by
yourself.
Phylum: __________________________________________
Must Include
Points
Body Plan:
 Characteristics
Habitat:
 Where it lives
 Diurnal/Nocturnal
Ecology
 Population numbers
 What/how it eats
Total
Additional Information to look for
Points
10
5 Specific species including one
Endangered species
5
5
Citizen Science projects that people
can get involved in
5
15
Any dangers that organisms might
pose or we might pose to it
5
30
Total
15
Hand in a bulleted fact sheet with above information for grading.
Researching: Finding information should ADD to your presentation NOT be your presentation.
Must Include
Points
Use of Encyclopedia (NOT ONLINE)
Use of Book
5
5
Use of Magazine
5
Visual Aids (be creative and accurate)
Works Cited
20
10
Total
45
Hand in the works cited page for grading.
Presentation: Your presentation will be 10 mins long. The purpose behind your presentation
will be to teach your class about your phylum. Have fun and use whatever (school appropriate)
you need to get your classmates to remember your group of animals. Feel free to use the animals
in the jars, PowerPoint, posters, pamphlets, or drawings to aid your presentation.
Points - 25
Total Points: 115
Due Date: ________________________
76
Unit 6:
77
Vocabulary:
1. skeletal muscle
2. cardiac muscle
3. smooth muscle
4. joint
5. ligament
6. tendon
78
I. Tissue Types


Connective Tissue: hold together and support other tissues-cushion, insulate, and connect organs.
Ex) bone, cartilage, blood, and fat
Muscle tissue: although muscles are composed of various tissues, the main tissue is muscle tissue
(3 types)
1. Skeletal muscle: voluntary muscle attached to the skeleton
2. Cardiac muscle: involuntary muscle of the heart
3. Smooth muscle: involuntary muscle lining most organs (peristalsis).
II. Important functions of the skeleton:
1. Support
2. Locomotion
3. Protection
4. Storage of Minerals
5. Blood Production
III. Anatomy of the skeleton:



Vertebra: small column of bones that make up the backbone and protect the spinal cord.
Cartilage: connective tissue that is soft and malleable. Provides support between each
vertebra and joints like the knee.
Label the following bones on your human skeleton diagram:
o Phalanges (both fingers and toes), Radius, Ulna, Humerus, Clavicle, Sternum,
Ribs, Vertebrae, Skull, Pelvis, Femur, Patella, Tibia, and Fibula.
IV. Bones as Living Organisms






The body’s skeleton starts off as cartilage and through ossification calcium deposits absorbed
from collagen turns to bone.
Inside bones there is a bone matrix that consists of flexible collagen and a hard mineral made
of calcium and phosphate.
o Collagen keeps the bone flexible and non-brittle
o The hard mineral helps the bone withstand forces that push on it.
Membrane contains: veins, arteries, and nerves to supply nutrients and stimuli.
Cartilage cushions the ends of bones and prevents them from rubbing against each other.
Four Layers of Bone (numbered)
o Marrow (two types)
 (1) Yellow-bone marrow: stores fat and serves as an energy reserve.
 (2) Red-bone marrow: produce blood cells (found in spongy bone)
o (3) Compact Bone (hard and gives structure) vs. (4) Spongy Bone (highly porous to
allow passage of materials).
Growth: Bones grow lengthwise at the ends of bones where there are cartilage plates.
V. How Joints Work:


Joint: an area where one bone meets another bone.
o Little to No Movement = Immovable Joints (human skull)
o Pivot Joint = allows rotation (base of skull with neck)
o Ball-and-socket Joint = rotate and move side to side (hip joint)
o Gliding Joint = allow bones to glide over other bones (wrist)
o Hinge Joint = single plane motion; back and forth (knee)
Ligaments: Bones in a movable joint are held together by these strong, fibrous connective
tissues.
79
I.
II.
How Muscles and Bones Work Together



Skeletal muscle interacts with parts of the skeleton for locomotion.
A muscle is attached to a bone by a tendon (a type of dense connective tissue).
Muscles cannot push, they only pull - an opposing motion is needed to return the bone back
to its original position.
The Structure of a Muscle
a.
1.
2.
3.
From the largest to the smallest:
Muscle bundle: (calf)
Muscle fiber: long muscle cell with multiple nuclei
Myofibril: smaller bundles, with alternating light and dark stripes (red and white) …
hence why skeletal muscle is a.k.a striated or striped.
4. Sarcomere: a single myofibril of repeated units: actin and myosin
5. Myosin: thick filaments with bump-like heads that pull on actin during contraction.
6. Actin: twisted rope-like structure that myosin acts upon.
III.
The Function of a Muscle:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Nerve impulses causes muscle to release calcium (normally stored in the muscles).
Loss of calcium in the muscle causes the myosin head to attach to actin.
Myosin pulls on actin causing the muscle to contract.
ATP is required to release the myosin head from actin. (ATP is also needed for cellular
respiration and providing overall energy).
*** Strength: depends on the thickness of the fibers and the number of fibers contracting at the
same time.
IV.
Label and know the following muscles (common names) on the muscle diagram in
your worksheet:
1. Biceps
**Opposing muscle groups:
2. Triceps
 Biceps and triceps- one flexes, other relaxes
3. Pectorals
**Muscles working together to perform a movement:
4. Abdominals
 Trapezoids and rhomboids-upper back
5. Glutes
6. Quadriceps
7. Hamstrings
8. Calves
80
1) Label numbers 1-15 on the skeleton.
2) Name three important functions of the
skeleton.
3) There are three types of muscle tissue.
Describe each type. (Involuntary or voluntary
and where they are found)
a. Skeletal muscle:
b. Cardiac muscle:
c. Smooth muscle:
4) Why is it an advantage to have a backbone comprised of small columns as opposed to
one elongated rod?
5) What is cartilage and what is its purpose?
81
6) Label numbers 1-8 of the muscular system.
7) In class, opposing muscle groups were
discussed. What is another example of
opposing muscle groups besides biceps and
triceps?
8) Describe the relationship between a muscle
bundle, muscle fiber, and myofibril.
9) When an organism dies, rigamortous occurs, which is when all the muscles in the body
remain contracted. Why does this occur (refer to the notes and think about ATP)?
10) How does the skeletal and muscular system work together to provide movement?
82
Vocabulary:
1. Heart
2. Capillaries
3. Arteries
4. Veins
5. Lymph
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Aorta
Atria
Ventricles
Platelets
Plasma
11. Red Blood Cells
12. Hemoglobin
83
84
I.
Purpose:
1. Delivering nutrients and oxygen to cells
2. Transports hormones throughout the body
3. Repairs tissue and infection prevention
II.
III.
Components (3)
1. Blood: a connective tissue made of cells and liquid
2. Heart: a multi-chambered, muscular organ
3. Blood vessels: tubes that form a closed circuit in the human body
a. Arteries: thick-walled blood vessels that flow to capillaries
 OXYGEN RICH and HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE
b. Capillaries: microscopic blood vessels (one RBC thick) –Increased surface area
for sites of nutrient/gas exchange
c. Veins: thin-walled blood vessels
 OXYGEN POOR and LOW BLOOD PRESSURE thus, blood is forced to
flow with contracting skeletal muscle.
 Veins have valves to prevent backflow.
Chemical Exchange:


IV.
V.
As nutrient/oxygen rich blood enters capillaries,
1. Small molecules like oxygen diffuse into nearby cells while carbon dioxide
diffuses into the blood in capillaries (to exit the body).
2. Large molecules move into and out of cells via exocytosis and endocytosis.
Cells are surrounded by interstitial fluid, which allows the exchange of these chemicals.
The Lymphatic System:
 The human body loses 4L of interstitial fluid daily and the lymphatic system collects and
returns most of this fluid back to the circulatory system.
 Composed of capillaries and one-way vessels.
 Once collected in this system, the fluid is known as lymph.
 Fluid moves through vessels in the same way as veins do.
 Fluid is dumped back into the circulatory system near the heart.
 SEE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Two Circuits of Blood Flow
1. Pulmonary Circuit: carries oxygen-depleted blood from the heart to the lungs and
oxygen-rich blood from the lungs back to the heart.
2. Systemic Circuit: carries oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the rest of the body and
oxygen-depleted blood back to the heart.
*** Blood flows at the same time in this double circuit, so oxygen-rich blood is in constant
supply.
VI.
Blood Flow: Starting and Ending at the Lung Capillaries
1.
Capillaries near the lung-now oxygen
rich (O.R)
2. Pulmonary veins (O.R)
3. Left atrium (O.R)
4. Left ventricle (O.R)’
5. Aorta (O.R)
6. Arteries of lower body (O.R)
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Capillaries of lower body (O.R.)
Veins of lower body-now oxygen poor (O.P)
Right atrium (O.P)
Right ventricle (O.P)
Pulmonary arteries (O.P)
Capillaries near the lung-back to step 1
85
VII. Heartbeat and Blood Pressure:

Pacemaker (SA node)- sets the rate at which your heart contracts, located in the wall of the right
atrium.
1. Generates electrical impulses that spread rapidly over the walls of both atria, making them
contract.
2. The impulses then spread to a region of the heart called the AV node. From there, the
electrical impulses spread to the ventricles causing them to contract.
i. Blood in the left ventricle is forced through the aorta and blood in the right ventricle is
forced through the pulmonary arteries to be brought to the lungs.
*The pacemaker is controlled by the nervous system and endocrine system.





The force that blood exerts on artery walls is known as blood pressure.
Blood pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury or (mmHg)
Standard blood pressure is 120/70. 140/90 is high and may lead to cardiovascular disease.
The first number represents systolic pressure, the greatest pressure exerted on artery walls
after the ventricles contract.
The second number represents diastolic pressure, the lowest recorded pressure which is the
relaxation phase of the heartbeat.
VIII. Blood Components:
1. Plasma:
o
o
o
55% of the blood.
90% of plasma is water.
10% = dissolved salts, proteins, and other transported substances
2. Red Blood Cells/Erythrocytes:
o
o
o
o
45% of the blood.
Carry oxygen with hemoglobin: a protein that temporarily stores oxygen. Each
RBC has about 250 million hemoglobin molecules.
Produced in bone marrow and as they mature they lose their nuclei and
mitochondria.
Lifespan: 100-120 days
3. White Blood Cells/Leukocytes:
o SEE IMMUNE SYSTEM
4. Platelets:
o
o
Small fragments that adhere to broken blood vessels and release clotting factors
which results in fibrin.
Fibrin is a network of threads that traps RBS and other platelets, forming a scab
86
1. Name one purpose of the circulatory system.
2. Describe the differences between arteries and veins. Include whether they are
oxygen-rich or oxygen poor, high or low blood pressure and their relationship to
capillaries)
3. How do nutrients and oxygen get to the body cells and how does carbon dioxide
leave these cells?
4. Blood has four components. If you were slide into home plate and cut your knee,
which component is responsible for your body forming a scab?
5. Describe how scabs are formed.
87
Vocabulary:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Alveoli
Breathing
Respiration
Trachea
88
I. Purpose:
1. Gas exchange between the body and the environment
II. Components:
1. Nose: external opening to allow air into the trachea
2. Pharynx: area at back of throat where mouth and nose meet the esophagus and trachea
3. Trachea: passage way to the lungs, held open by cartilage rings
a. Covered by epiglottis when swallowing food
b. Larynx: larger section at top of trachea that makes noise as air flows through
(voice box)
c. Branches into smaller tubes:
i. Bronchus: from trachea to each lung
ii. Bronchiole: from bronchus throughout the lungs
iii. Alveoli: thin sacs at the end of bronchiole
4. Lungs: tissue where gas exchanges with the circulatory system
a. Alveoli are sacs that increase surface area and are place for gas exchange with
the circulatory system
b. Must remain moist
5. Diaphragm: smooth muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity
a. Contracts: air flow into the lungs (inhaling)
b. Relaxes: air flow out of the lungs (exhaling)
*******************
Breathing: process of inhaling and exhaling air in and out of the lungs
Respiration: entire pathway of air coming in and being used in the mitochondria and
waste being released
*******************
III. Pathway:
2 parts – Oxygen consumption and Carbon Dioxide waste
Part
1 – Consumption
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
air in nose, nasal passage
pharynx
larynx
trachea
bronchi
bronchioles
alveoli
blood capillaries, oxygen into blood
plasma
9. enters cells (1st cytoplasm)
10. mitochondria (electron acceptor)
Part 2 – Waste
1. carbon dioxide exits cell into blood
plasma
2. blood capillaries at alveoli
3. alveoli
4. bronchioles
5. bronchi
6. trachea
7. larynx
8. pharynx
9. out nasal passage into atmosphere
IV. Cleaning air
1. Particulates are in the air all the time
2.
Nose, trachea and bronchi are lined in cilia and cells that secrete mucus
89
1) Label the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, larynx, bronchus, bronchiole, alveoli and
diaphragm.
2) What is the diaphragm and what is its purpose?
3) What is the difference between breathing and respiration?
4) How does the human respiratory system clean the air we breathe in?
90
Vocabulary:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Nephron
Ureter
Urethra
Dermis
Epidermis
91
Urinary System
I. Purpose:
1. Rids body of waste – excess water and minerals, dead bacteria, toxins
2. Cellular waste ends up in the circulatory system
3. All blood is filtered through the kidneys
II. Components:
1. Renal Artery and Vein: brings blood from the heart into the kidney and blood from the kidney towards the
heart
2. Kidney: organ that filters the blood of excess material and toxins through urine
a. Nephron: working unit of the kidney
i. Uses diffusion and osmosis to filter out toxins and excess material
3. Ureter: tubes that connect the kidneys to the bladder
4. Bladder: organ that stores urine until it is released from the body
5. Urethra: tube that leads from the bladder out of the body
III. Homeostasis:
1. Filters waste so it does not build to toxic levels in the body
2. Maintains water balance in the body
3. Maintains pH balance by regulating salt levels in the body
Skin
I. Purpose:
1. Bodies 1st line of defense
2. Maintains homeostasis
II. Components:
1. Tissues
 Epithelial cells – cover body
 Connective tissue – connect cell layers (elastic)
 Nerve tissue – detects stimuli
 Muscle tissue – moves hairs (fright, cold)
2. Layers
o Epidermis
o Dead - has keratin for water proofing
o Living - has melanin to protect against UV light (solar radiation)
o Dermis: padding, contains nerves, glands, veins, hair, muscles
o Subcutaneous: fat for insulation
III. Homeostasis:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sweat: maintains body temperature through evaporation
Hair: insulation
Capillaries: temperature maintenance
Protects from physical and chemical damage
Balances chemicals in body – vitamin D
92
1. Name one purpose of
the urinary system.
2. Describe the function of the kidneys.
3. How does the urinary system aid in homeostasis? (Give 2 examples)
4. Name one purpose of the skin.
5. Name and describe the four tissue components of the skin.
6) How does the skin aid in homeostasis? (Give 2 examples)
93
Vocabulary:
1. Digestion
2. Absorption
3. Saliva
4. Pharynx
5. Esophagus
9. Liver
10. Gallbladder
11. Pancreas
12. Villi
13. Large Intestine
6. Peristalsis
7. Stomach
8. Small Intestine
94
I. Purpose:
1. Absorption of nutrients, minerals, and water from food
II. 4 Stages of Food Processing:

The process of how the human body obtains raw materials from food is called nutrition.
Nutrition is needed for growth, regulation, and repair. There are four stages:
1. Ingestion: eating or drinking
2. Digestion: food processing where food is broken down into molecules small enough
for the body to absorb.
o Mechanical digestion: Chops and grinds food into smaller pieces to increase
surface area.
o Chemical digestion: Breaks bonds between larger molecules to form smaller
molecules (ex: acids in stomach aid peptase in breaking protein apart by
breaking peptide bonds)
3. Absorption: certain cells take up the small molecules and the circulatory distributes
them throughout the body.
4. Elimination: undigested material exits the body.
III. Organs of the Digestive System:
1. Mouth: involved in ingestion and digestion.
 Mechanically digests food by chewing food and chemically digests food with
saliva.
 Saliva contains the enzyme amylase which breaks down polysaccharides into
monosaccharides (starch into maltose).
2. Pharynx: upper portion of the throat where the tongue pushes food into the esophagus
3. Esophagus: vertical tube of smooth muscle that connects the pharynx to the stomach.
 Muscle contractions push the food through the esophagus…known as peristalsis.
4. Stomach: an elastic, muscular sac where both mechanical and chemical digestion occurs.
 The stomach can stretch to hold approx. 2L of food. Gastric juice (composed of
mucus, hydrochloric acid, and enzymes) breaks down food and kills bacteria.
 **Peptase is an enzyme that breaks down large protein molecules into smaller
polypeptides.
5. Small intestine: muscular, long (6m) and narrow (2.5cm), this tube uses peristalsis to
move digested material.
 Duodenum: first area of small intestine where chemical digestion continues
o Bile secreted from the liver is brought into the small intestine to break
down fats into small globs so digestive enzymes can break this down
more easily (into lipids). This process of breaking down fats is known as
emulsification.
6. Liver: organ that produces bile, breaks down harmful material, detoxifies the body
 Bile is stored in the gallbladder.
7. Pancreas: produces pancreatic juice that neutralizes the acidic material from the
stomach.
 Pancreatic juice also hydrolyzes carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids.
8. Villi: finger-like projections that increase surface area in the small intestine and are a link
between the digestive system and the circulatory system.
9. Large Intestine: also called the colon, 5cm wide, 1.5m in length.
 Site of where water is reabsorbed (10% of water is excreted).
 Contain bacteria that produce K and B vitamins
 Undigested food material and other waste products exits through the anus as
feces. Waste material takes 12-24 hours to travel through the colon.
***Note: The small and large intestines are highly convoluted to increase surface area!!!
95
IV. Homeostasis:
1. The building blocks of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats can all be used by cells to
make ATP. Water is the transport medium for chemical reactions to occur.
2. Saliva-stimulated by sight, smell, thought of food
3. Gastric Juices-stimulated by nervous system and endocrine system
4. Digestion begins in the stomach
5. Hormones are released to the brain, which tells the stomach to release more gastric juices.
6. When food enters the intestine, hormones tell the brain to inhibit gastric juices and
increase pancreatic juices.
7. Endocrine system (hormones) can regulate the nutrient levels in blood.
a. Glucose regulation (pancreas)
i. Insulin aids in sugar in blood to enter cells and converts extra sugar to
glycogen
ii. Glucagon breaks down glycogen in order to increase sugar levels in the
blood
V. Metabolism: all the chemical reactions that take place in the body
1.
2.
3.
4.
Calories are the energy content found in food (potential E).
More calories: more energy available and excess is stored as fat
Less calories: less energy available and fats are broken down
Nutrients (6): carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins, water
96
1. Beginning in the oral cavity (mouth) and ending at the anus, describe how food
passes through the alimentary canal. Include specific structures and mention what is
happening in particular areas. Be sure to mention mechanical and chemical
digestion in your answer.
2. Bile performs ___________________ to break down fat molecules:
a. Digestion
b. Hydrolysis
c. Emulsification
d. Enzymatic breakdown
3. The lining of the small intestine is covered with____________ that help increase
surface area and serve as a link between the digestive and circulatory system.
4. Two important jobs of the large intestine are________________ and
_________________.
a. Vitamin absorption, water reabsorption
b. Elimination of undigested material, storage of feces
c. Glycerol absorption, water reabsorption
d. Both (a) and (b)
5. The erosion of digestive lining resulting from some irritant is known as a(n)
___________________.
6. The villi, the length, and the ___________ of the small intestine increase surface area.
a. Convolution
b. Peristalsis
c. Capillaries
d. Moisture
7. How (and where) do humans benefit from particular types of bacteria?
8. Where the stomach and the esophagus meet there is the esophageal sphincter which
keeps gastric juices from entering the esophagus. A malfunction of the esophageal
sphincter can result in __________________________.
9. What is constipation? What is diarrhea? How do both these malfunctions occur?
97
anus - the opening at the end of the digestive system from which feces exit the body.
appendix - a small sac located near the start of the large intestine.
esophagus - the long tube between the mouth and the stomach. It uses rhythmic muscle movements (called peristalsis)
to force food from the throat into the stomach.
gall bladder - a small, sac-like organ located by the duodenum. It stores and releases bile (a digestive chemical which
is produced in the liver) into the small intestine.
large intestine - the long, wide tube that food goes through after it goes through the small intestine.
liver - a large organ located above and in front of the stomach. It filters toxins from the blood, and makes bile (which
breaks down fats) and some blood proteins.
mouth - the first part of the digestive system, where food enters the body. Chewing and salivary enzymes in the mouth
are the beginning of the digestive process (breaking down the food).
pancreas - an enzyme-producing gland located below the stomach and above the intestines. Enzymes from the
pancreas help in the digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the small intestine.
rectum - the lower part of the large intestine, where feces are stored before they are excreted from the body.
small intestine - the long, thin winding tube that food goes through after it leaves the stomach.
stomach - a sac-like, muscular organ that is attached to the esophagus. When food enters the stomach, it is churned in
an acid bath.
98
Vocabulary:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Thymus Gland
Endemic
Epidemic
Passive Immunity
Active Immunity
6. Bacteriophage
7. Virus
8. Lymph
9. Leukocyte
10. Tonsils
99
I. Purpose:
1. Body’s defense system against pathogens – internal and external
II. Pathogens: things that cause disease (dis – ease)
1. Bacteria
2. Virus (nonliving)
3. Protists
4. Fungus
5. Parasites
 Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens
 Symptoms are caused by damage to cells or toxins
o cell death, inflammation, narcosis, increased mucus production
 Endemic vs. Epidemic
III. Components:
1. Lymph vessels: tubes that carry lymph around body
2. Lymph: clear or straw colored liquid that baths cells and carries white blood cells
3. White Blood Cells (WBC) or Lymphocyte: cells that recognize, eat or destroy foreign material in
the body
a. T-cells
b. B-cells
c. Killer T-cells
d. Macrophage
4. Lymph node: enlarged area of the lymph vessels
a. WBCs held here
b. Lymph filtered back into the circulatory system here
5. Thymus Gland: tissue above the heart that trains WBCs to recognize specific invading pathogens
a. Reduces in size as you get older
6. Spleen: organ that filters out and destroys bacteria and worn-out RBCs
IV. Body Defense: nonspecific
1. Skin: physical barrier (1st line of defense)
2. Secretions: mucus, sweat, tears, saliva, stomach acid
V. Body Defense: Specifics
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Lymphatic system: maintains homeostasis by maintaining body fluids, absorbs fats, defense against disease
Body cells are bathed in fluid called tissue fluid
Becomes lymph when it enters lymphatic vessels
Travels towards the heart and enters the circulatory system to return to the body
Proteins float in blood, attach to specific pathogens, act as a beacon
Antigens provoke an immune response and cause production of antibodies
Antibodies shut the pathogen down while WBCs engulf and remove the pathogen
Collection of used or dead WBCs is called pus
VI. Symptoms:




Inflammation – swelling due to increased fluids in the area
Redness – dilated vessels
Pain – damage to cells on or near nerves
Heat – chemicals talking to hypothalamus to increase body temperature (fever)
VII. Antibody Immunity
1. Passive immunity: antibodies present because of passive acquiring (such as antibodies already created
by mom who passes them through the placenta and through nursing)
2. Active immunity: antibodies present because of exposure to pathogens
100 antibodies to
3. Vaccine: dead or weakened state of a virus is injected into the blood. Your body creates
act against it.
Remember the Virus Notes
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Virus
 Nonliving (does not show characteristics of life)
 Made of protein coat and either DNA or RNA
 Use a living host cell to reproduce
Bacteriophage
 What a virus is called if it uses a bacteria as a host cell
Recognition
 Protein coat = particular shape therefore fits like a puzzle piece into a receptor site
 Receptor cells (sites)
 Only infect specific species/cells
Life cycles
A. Lytic Cycle:
1. Destroy host cell’s DNA
2. Reprogram host cell’s metabolism
3. Host cell creates copies of virus’s genetics and protein coat
4. When full, virus burst (lysis) out of cell killing it
B. Lysogenic Cycle
1. Injects DNA which becomes a part of host’s DNA = provirus
2. Dormant
3. Provirus pops out = Lytic cycle
C. Retrovirus
1. Called retroviruses because always changes protein coat = can never be
recognized by immune system
2. Have RNA that needs to change to DNA to be incorporated into host’s DNA
3. Reverse Transcriptase: RNA to DNA
**EXAMPLE: HIV = Human Immunodefiency Virus
AIDS = last stage of HIV where the individual’s immune system
is extremely low to non-existent (dies from other diseases, usually
pneumonia).
101
1) What is the purpose of the immune system?
2) What are pathogens? Give three examples of pathogens.
3) What is the function of a white blood cell?
4) What is a vaccine? How can they be effective?
5) Explain how HIV infects a human and the cycle it takes in order to reproduce.
102
Vocabulary:
1.
2.
3.
4.
nerve
sensory receptors
dendrites
feedback mechanism
5.
6.
7.
8.
pancreas
Synapse
neurotransmitters
hypothalamus
103
104
I. Purpose:
1.
2.
Gather and process information about internal and external surroundings
Respond to a stimulus
II. Components:
1.
2.
The basic unit of the nervous system is a neuron.
The organs of the nervous system form two subsystems:
a. Central Nervous System: The main information processing center that includes the brain and
spinal cord.
b. Peripheral Nervous System: Carries information from CNS to organs through the
communication lines known as nerves.
III. How it works:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
A stimulus, or an environmental change, can be translated along a sensory neuron.
Sensory receptors carry information to the CNS.
CNS interprets the information in its interneurons located in the spinal cord.
CNS orders a response, like contracting a muscle or making a gland secrete a hormone.
Neurons that carry such signals away from the CNS are known as motor neurons.
An automatic response requiring no brain interpretation to a stimulus is a reflex.
IV. Structure of a Neuron:








Dendrites: fibers that receive signals and carry them towards the neuron’s cell body. – contain
receptors
Axon: a fiber that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body and towards other cells.
Myelin sheath: thick coat of material that speeds up electrical impulses (made by Schwann cells).
Nodes: spaces in between the beads of myelin sheath.
Axon Knobs: the ends of the axon
Synapse: the space between the axon knobs of one neuron and the dendrites of another
Synaptic Cleft: a chemical synapse where neurotransmitters are released from axon knobs. These
neurotransmitters can increase or inhibit an electric impulse to the other neuron. Some
neurotransmitters have specific roles in the body:
i. Epinephrine & Norepinephrine-trigger an increased heart rate.
ii. Serotonin & Dopamine-trigger changes in sleep, mood, attention, & learning.
Cell Body: body that contains the nucleus
V. Resting Neuron
1.
2.
3.
Outside of the membrane has a net positive charge and the inside has a net negative charge.
The nerve cell pumps sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell and potassium ions (K+) into the cell by active
transport.
The nerve membrane is permeable to potassium ions, but not to sodium ions. The sodium ions pumped out
of the cell cannot diffuse back in and the number of them increases outside the cell, thus producing a
positive charge that builds on the outside of the cell.
VI. Firing Neuron (transmitting an impulse)
1.
2.
3.
An impulse from a neuron or a stimulus from a receptor starts a nerve impulse
Sodium ions are allowed to enter the membrane at the point of the impulse and causes a reversal of polarity
also known as depolarization.
A neuron will only “fire” if the stimulus is strong enough and the minimum level at which depolarization
can occur is known as the threshold.
105
At Rest
Impulse
++++++++++++++++
- - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - -
+++++++- - - - - - +++++++- - - - - - -
++++++++++++++++
- - - - -
VII. The Spinal Cord:
1.
Contained within the column of vertebrae, the spinal cord is surrounded by fluid that cushions the cord and
provides it with nutrients.
VIII. The Brain:
1.
2.
Composed of 100 billion neurons, the brain is the computer that receives, sort, and delivers vast quantities
of information in the human body.
REFER TO AND LABEL BRAIN DIAGRAM IN WORKSHEET
IX. Memory:
1.
2.
3.
Short-Term Memory: can recall up to 7 bits of information.
Long-Term Memory: information that is stored permanently and can be retrieved/recalled. Can be
enhanced by associating new memories with old ones. Forgetting information is a result of losing the
connection to the particular area of the brain where the memory was stored.
Limbic System: several areas that integrate and relay information on memory, emotions, and senses.
X. Types of sensory receptors:
o
Pain, thermoreceptors (heat), mechanoreceptors (touch, pressure), chemoreceptors (taste, smell),
and photoreceptors (light).
XI. Vision:
o
o
o
o
o
o
Cornea: focus light to the back of the eye
Iris: eye color
Pupil: muscles in the iris control the size of this dark opening
Retina: the lens focuses images after it passes through the pupil, onto the retina (the inner surface of
the eye).
Cones: photoreceptor responsive to blue, red, and green.
Rods: extremely sensitive to light (not color).
XII. Hearing and Balance:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sounds waves are collected at the auditory canal (outer ear) and travel to the eardrum.
The thin layer of the eardrum vibrates three small bones: hammer, anvil and stirrup.
The bones send sounds waves through the auditory tube (which keeps air pressure equal on either
side of the eardrum).
Sound waves set fluid into motion in channels in the skull. One of these channels is known as the
cochlea. In the cochlea are hairs which are moved and by the sound waves and these send nerve
impulses to the brain.
BALANCE: Semicircular canals detect the positioning of our body relative to gravity. These canals
also contain hair cells.
XIII. Smell and Taste:
o
Chemoreceptors line the nose and the tongue. The chemicals in scents and foods triggers specialized
chemoreceptor cells and this information is sent to the brain for interpretation.
**Drugs: chemicals that are capable of reacting with body functions. Sometimes the
reaction is positive, sometimes it is negative.
106
1) What is the basic unit of the nervous system?
2) Explain how an impulse travels across a nerve cell (include the words depolarization and
threshold).
3) Describe the difference between the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system.
4) What occurs at the synaptic cleft and how does this play a role in the human body?
5) Label the brain anatomy diagram.
107
I. Purpose:
1. Together with the nervous system, the endocrine system coordinates functions of all the body
systems and helps in homeostasis.
2. When a hormone reaches a target cell, it causes that cell to respond in a specific manner.
II. Components: All the following are considered feedback mechanisms
A. The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary:
1.
2.
Hypothalamus: master control center of the endocrine system. It manufactures hormones that affect other
endocrine glands, like the pituitary gland. It regulates body functions like temperature, hunger, and thirst.
Pituitary: secretes hormones that influence other glands and body functions. The hypothalamus can
control the pituitary to secrete hormones. Ex. growth hormone (GH) is used for normal growth and
development. An overproduction of this hormone in childhood can result in gigantism.
B. The Thyroid: Butterfly-shaped gland wrapped around the trachea.
1.
2.
Thyroxine: A major thyroid hormone that stimulates cellular respiration. It helps in maintaining normal
blood pressure, heart rate, digestion and reproductive functions.
Calcitonin: A hormone secreted by the thyroid that regulates calcium levels. Calcium is important in nerve
signal transmission, muscle contraction, blood clotting, the movement of materials across membranes, and
bone production.
C. The Pancreas:
1.
2.
Produces insulin and glucagon. Insulin puts glucose into cells while glucagon store excess sugar as
glucagon. (see notes from digestive system).
Diabetes: body cells are unable to absorb glucose from the blood.
D. The Adrenal Glands:
1.
2.
Two adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys and produce adrenaline.
Hormones secreted by the adrenal gland provide a slower, longer-acting response to stress. In a stressful
situation, the hypothalamus directs the pituitary to secrete a hormone that stimulates the adrenal gland to
make adrenaline.
E. The Menstrual Cycle:
1.
Refers to the cyclic changes that take place in the uterus. The secretion of hormones coordinates this cycle
in addition to the Ovarian Cycle, which refers to the cyclic changes that take place in the ovaries.
2. The 1st phase is the follicular phase (9-20 days long), 2nd: Menstrual phase (3-5 days long), 3rd:
Proliferation phase (6-14 days long)
3. In the beginning of the cycles, low estrogen levels trigger the hypothalamus to secrete a releasing hormone,
which makes the pituitary produce follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
4. In one ovary, the FSH causes one of its oocytes and one of its follicles to start to mature.
5. In the uterus, the low levels of estrogen cause the uterine lining, the endometrium, to break down and
epithelial cells, mucus, and approx. 40mL of blood is released through the vagina in the process known as
menstruation.
6. As the follicle matures, it secreted estrogen and this signals the hypothalamus to slow the secretion of FSH
and LH.
7. Lower FSH and LH prevents other oocytes and follicles from developing.
8. Rising estrogen levels cause the endometrium to thicken to prepare for pregnancy.
9. Ovulation Phase (1 day): Around day 12, the follicle matures and causes a surge in estrogen. The
pituitary responds by secreting FSH and LH. This causes the follicle to break open in the ovaries and the
release of the egg into the oviduct.
10. Luteal and Secretory Phases (14 days): after the follicle breaks open, the remaining cells form a corpus
luteum (yellow body), which secretes estrogen and progesterone (pregnancy hormone), which stimulates
the endometrium to thicken further. If pregnancy doesn’t occur, the follicle breaks down, secreting less
hormones which causes the pituitary to secrete FSH and LH, thus repeating the cycle.
F. Testicles: Produce the hormone testosterone: used in normal male development and sexual
function in both males and females.
108
1. What is the control center of the endocrine system and what is the master gland?
2. What is the role of the thyroid in the human body? Explain how the regulation of
calcium is important.
3. What is the role of the pancreas in the human body? Explain the how the regulation
of blood sugar occurs.
4. Where are the adrenal glands located?
5. In a stressful situation, the _____________________________ directs the
______________________ to secrete a hormone that stimulates the adrenal gland to
make _______________________________.
Vocabulary:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Meiosis
Gamete
Fallopian Tube (Oviduct)
Uterus
5. Ovulation
6. Semen
7. Testes
110
I. Purpose:
1. Create new life
2. Genetically recombine unique combinations to increase variation among the species
II. Important Facts:
1. Sexual Reproduction: Needs two individuals of opposite sex to create a new individual
of the same species.
2. Meiosis creates the haploid gametes in both male and females.
3. Recap on Animal Development: zygote---mitosis---blastula (hollow ball of cells)--gastrula (ectoderm & endoderm…will eventually form mesoderm)---adult
III. Male Components:
1. Reproductive organ is the penis
2. Sperm is created in the scrotum at a temperature 30C below that of the rest of the body.
(Which is why the scrotum is found outside the body).
3. 4 viable sperm are created with every cell that undergoes meiosis and they live for about
48 hours inside the female’s reproductive tract.
4. Sperm has a head coated with enzymes to break down the eggs defense barrier, a
midpiece that contains mitochondria for energy production, and a tail to move with.
5. Semen is the combination of sperm and fluids used for food, for pH balance, and
movement.
6. Semen leaves the body through the urethra
IV. Homeostasis:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Hormones control puberty: stage when secondary sex characteristics occur
The Hypothalamus and Pituitary gland secrete FSH and LH, which travel to the testes.
Testosterone and sperm are created.
Negative Feedback mechanisms control the levels of hormones released
V. Female Components:
1. The reproductive organs in females are the ovaries, uterus and vagina
2. Eggs are created by meiosis in the 2 ovaries
3. When meiosis occurs 4 haploid eggs are created, but only 1 is viable, the other three are
called polar bodies and they disappear
4. Once a month a mature egg bursts (ovulation) from the ovary and travels down the
fallopian tube (where it can be fertilized)
5. If fertilization occurs the egg flows down to the uterus and attaches to the wall where it
undergoes mitosis to create a unique individual
6. If fertilization does not occur, the menstrual cycle begins.
VI. Homeostasis:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
A female is born with all the eggs she will ever have
The eggs mature when she hits puberty
The Hypothalamus and Pituitary gland create and send out FSH and LH
Estrogen and Progesterone are stimulated
Feedback mechanisms start and stop the menstrual cycle
Labor is stimulated by hormones and Positive feedback mechanisms begin – contractions
cause stronger contractions until fetus is delivered
111
VII. Development:
1. Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tubes – implants in the wall of the uterus
2. Placenta attaches to the wall of the uterus and allows materials to be diffused between
mother and child. Blood is never mixed between the two.
3. First Trimester- body systems form, fetus is sensitive to outside influences (drugs,
alcohol)
4. Second Trimester- body growth
5. Third Trimester- Stretching, growth, maturity
1. What are the male vs. female sex hormones?
2. Circle the correct term:
Eggs are produced by the process of (mitosis/meiosis). Once fertilization occurs
and the zygote attaches to the uterine lining, the zygote undergoes
(mitosis/meiosis) to create an individual.
3. What is menstruation and why does it occur?
4. Why is blood not mixed between mother and child?
Know the components of the male and female reproductive systems on
the diagrams provided on the previous page.
112
Unit 7:
Ecology
1. Vocabulary for Unit 7
2. Ecology
a.
b.
c.
d.
Principles
Energy Relationships
Population Dynamics
Human Interactions
113
Vocabulary List for:
Ecology
Directions: Please make flashcards of all the following words and study them for the exam.
1. Ecology: interactions of organisms and their environments
2. Abiotic: nonliving
3. Biotic: living
4. Species: group of organisms who can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
5. Population: a group of one species living in the same place at the same time
6. Community: groups of species living in the same place at the same time
7. Limiting factors: any biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the numbers of organisms
8. Density dependant factor: have increasing effect on organisms as population numbers increase
9. Density independent factors: have the same effect on organisms despite population numbers
10. Succession: progression of changes in an environment over time
11. Autotroph: makes own food
12. Heterotroph: can not make its own food
13.
Decomposer: breaks down dead items and recycles the nutrients
14. Trophic level: energy levels in the food web
15. Commensalism: one organisms benefits while the other is not harmed nor benefiting
16. Mutualism: both organisms benefit from the relationship
17. Parasitism: one organism benefits while the other is harmed
18. Carrying capacity: the number of organisms an area can sustain
19. Ozone: layer of atmosphere that blocks UV light
20. Greenhouse Effect: phenomenon that traps heat on Earth
21. Global Warming: average temperature of the Earth is increasing
114
Chapter 34-36:
Gazing down at the Earth from space, Appolo astronaut Rusty Schweickart once remarked, “On that small blue-andwhite planet is everything that means anything to you. National boundaries and human artifacts no longer seam real.
Only the biosphere, whole and home of life.”
Topic 1: Principles
1. Define Ecology
a. Ecology is the interaction of organisms and their environments
b. Ecology combines all areas of study: geology, chemistry, biology, and math…
c. Ecology makes use of several types of research and looks at all angles
2. Define Environment, Habitat, Niche
a. All of these add up to create the Biosphere we all live in.
b. Biosphere
i. Supports life
ii. High in the atmosphere to the bottom of the ocean
iii. Different adaptations are needed to allow organisms to survive in different
areas of the biosphere
c. Biotic factors are living things within the biosphere
i. These organisms play a role in the lives of other biotic factors around them
d. Abiotic factors are non-living things within the biosphere
i. These materials are essential to life for the biotic organisms
ii. They have obvious effects on organisms
e. Ecologists study biotic and abiotic factors in order to understand the environment as
a whole.
3. Organization of the environment…
a. The biosphere is the largest and is built from smaller pieces. An ecologist needs to
study all levels of organization from an individual to the biosphere as a whole.
b. Individual – Species -- Population – Community - (Niche – Habitat - Environment) –
Ecosystem – Biome – Biosphere
c. An individual is insignificant when compared to the species as a whole.
i. However, an individual can cause a major change within the species
d. Interactions between biotic and abiotic factors form ecosystems
4. Biomes are the large scale habitats:
a. Terrestrial:
i. Deserts: hot, dry, do not hold heat well, little plant life
ii. Grasslands: hot, too dry for large plant life, soil is high in humus
iii. Temperate Forest: 70-150cm of rain, deciduous forests, mixed forests, top
layer of soil rich in humus, bottom layer is clay
iv. Rainforest: uniformly warm and wet, lots of plant life, nutrients are tied up
within living material
v. Taiga: Northern coniferous forest, warmer than tundra, harsh cold winters,
short summer
115
vi. Tundra: Treeless, long summer days, short periods of winter sunlight,
temperature is not above freezing for long
b. Aquatic:
i. Marine: Oceans, contain most amount of biomass, hold heat for a long time
ii. Estuary: mixes salt and fresh water
iii. Freshwater: temperature changes with depth, population density changes
with depth
c. Atmosphere
5. Changing environments
a. Fast and dramatic change
b. Slow or gradual change
c. Observation of patterns can help us predict what might happen if there is a
disturbance.
6. Limiting Factors cause change to occur
a. Environmental factors that affect an organism’s ability to survive
b. Any biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the existence, numbers, reproduction, or
distribution of organisms
c. Density dependant factors have an increasing effect on organisms as population
numbers rise, while density independent factors have the same effect on organisms
despite population numbers
d. These factors may have an indirect effect on another population
7. Range of Tolerance
a. Ones ability to with stand fluctuations in biotic or abiotic environmental factors
b. Organisms can survive in environments where conditions are not great, but they are
infrequent – adaptations allow them to do this
8. Succession
a. Natural changes in the community over time
i. Primary: lichen eat rock to create soil, small grasses take root, death and
decay help continue to build soil, then shrubs, trees move in last
ii. Climax community = little or no succession
iii. Secondary: b/c natural disasters or human impact, gradual change but faster
than primary, reverts back to a similar community
116
Topic 2: Energy Relationships

All matter and energy cycle through ecosystems
1. Species- interactions provide energy and maintain homeostasis
a. Feeding relationships
i. Organisms
1. Autotrophs: _____________________________________
2. Heterotrophs: ____________________________________
3. Herbivores: ______________________________________
4. Carnivores: ______________________________________
5. Omnivores: ______________________________________
6. Scavengers: ______________________________________
7. Decomposers: ____________________________________
8. Saprobes: ________________________________________


ii. Food Chains
Chains- model used to show energy transfer
a. Not a great way to show what is actually happening
b. Arrows show direction of energy flow
c. Usually 3 arrows, no more than five
Trophic Levels- steps in food chain represented by each animal
a. Much better way of showing what is really going on
b. Each level is determined by what the organism feeds on
c. EX) Plants are autotrophs so they make up the first trophic level. Rabbits and deer
eat the plants so they apart of the second level.
d. Energy flows through following many paths
117





Food webs and pyramids- model the complex paths of energy flow
What happens when the energy reaches the end?
a. Some energy is lost to the environment in the form of heat and is replenished by the
sun
b. Some energy is lost to the environment through decay and is replenished through
nutrient flow
iii. Relationships
Symbiosis-“living together”, interaction of individuals of different species
a. Commensalism
i. EX) Spanish moss on the side of a tree
b. Mutualism
i. EX) Ants living in the needles of an acacia tree
c. Parasitism
i. EX) Hook worm in a cow’s body
iv. Environmental Cycles
Matter (nutrients) cannot be replenished from the sun, all the atoms remain on Earth and are
recycled
The following cycles need to be defined and drawn
a. Water Cycle
b. Carbon Cycle
c. Nitrogen Cycle
d. Phosphorous Cycle
Topic 3: Population Dynamics

By studying population dynamics in other species, scientists hope to infer much about
humans
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Population is a group of species in the same place at the same time
Population Growth = the change in size of a population with time
Linear growth
Exponential Growth
Population size does have its limits:
a. Carrying capacity: the number of organisms an area can sustain
i. Represented by k
k
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ii.
iii.
iv.
i.
Under k, births will exceed deaths
Over k, deaths will exceed births
Carrying capacity is determined by the biotic and abiotic factors in the area.
Limiting factors: space, food availability, competition, water, population
density
6. Environmental conditions affect the rate of population growth
a. Changing environments will affect rapid up and down growth of things like
mosquitoes and rodents
b. Stable environments will be slow and maintain homeostasis. This is good
for elephants and whales.
8. Human Population Growth
a. Exponential growth
b. Humans have the ability to alter or modify their environments
-Grow more food, less competition, control disease
c. What happens when all the natural resources are stripped from the planet?
d. Renewable resources: can make more (trees, food, etc.)
e. Nonrenewable resources: cannot make more (soil, oil, etc.)
Topic 4: Human Interactions


Humans have the ability to manipulate their environment.
Effects of pollution:
a. Air:
 Burning fossil fuels
 Releases particulates
b. Acid Rain:
 Usually a pH of 5.6 because CO2 dissolves into it while it condenses in the
air
 Now it is a pH of 4.0-4.5 because of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the
air
c. Ozone:
 Prevents organisms from receiving lethal doses of UV radiation (which
causes skin cancer)
 CFC’s (Chlorofluorocarbons) eat a hole in the ozone
 CFC’s are man made coolants
d. Greenhouse Effect:
 Traps heat in the atmosphere
e. Global Warming:
 Average temperature of the Earth is increasing
 Pollutants are trapping too much heat in and melting the ice caps
f. Water:
 Covers 2/3rds of the Earth’s surface
 3% fresh water (most is either frozen or unreachable)
 We use only .1%
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g. Land:
 Biodegradable:
 Non-biodegradable:
h. Introduced Species:
 Invasive species that do not belong in an area because they have no natural
predators to keep their population numbers in balance so they breed and take
over the area killing off a lot of native species

How we can help:
a. Selective breeding: People choose traits and breed the organisms to get offspring
that have the best of the traits.
b. Recycling: Reusing materials so we can save nonrenewable resources
c. Preservation: Act of keeping an area protected
d. Conservation: Planned management of natural area to prevent exploitation or
destruction
e. Recovery Programs: Habitat or organism recreations, recovery efforts, breeding
programs used to increase numbers of organisms and habitats
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