Chapter 4 Outline:
4.1 What does it mean to be conscious, and are there different levels of consciousness? (text p. 134)
AP* V.7 Identify the major figures in consciousness research

Definition of Consciousness
o Consciousness is a person’s awareness of everything that is going on at any given
moment. Most waking hours are spent in waking consciousness.
AP* V.1 Describe various states of consciousness and their impact on behavior

Altered States of Consciousness
o Altered states of consciousness are shifts in the quality or pattern of mental activity.
ALTERED STATES: SLEEP (TEXT p. 135)
4.2 Why do people need to sleep, and how does sleep work? (text p. 135)
AP* V.2 Discuss aspects of sleep and dreaming



The Biology of Sleep
o Sleep is a circadian rhythm, lasting 24 hours
The Role of the Hypothalamus: The Mighty Mite
o Sleep is a product of the activity of the hypothalamus, the hormone melatonin, the
neurotransmitter serotonin, and body temperature.
o Adaptive theory states that sleep evolved as a way to conserve energy and keep animals
safe from predators that hunt at night.
o Restorative theory states that sleep provides the body with an opportunity to restore
chemicals that have been depleted during the day as well as the growth and repair of cell
tissue.
o The average amount of sleep needed by most people is about 7 to 9 hours within each 24
hour period.
The Stages of Sleep
4.3 What are the different stages of sleep, including the stage of dreaming and its importance? (text p.
140)
AP* V.2 Discuss aspects of sleep and dreaming
Stage One sleep is light sleep.
Stage Two Sleep is indicated by the presence of sleep spindles, bursts of activity on the
EEG.
o Stage Three is highlighted by the first appearance of delta waves, the slowest and largest
waves.
o Stage Four is predominantly delta waves, and the body is at its lowest level of functioning.
What Happens in REM Sleep?
o REM sleep occurs four or five times a night, replacing Stage One sleep in the sleep-wake
cycle and is accompanied by paralysis of the voluntary muscles.
Sleep Disorders
o
o


4.4 How do sleep disorders interfere with normal sleep? (text p. 143)
o Nightmares are bad or unpleasant dreams that occur during REM sleep.
o REM behavior disorder is a rare condition in which REM paralysis fails and the person
moves violently while dreaming, often acting out the elements of the dream.
o Early studies of REM sleep seemed to show that a lack of REM sleep would lead to
madness, but later research has consistently shown this to be untrue.
o Sleepwalking occurs in Stage Four sleep.
o Night terrors are attacks of extreme fear that the victim has while sound asleep.
o Psychology in the News: Murder While Sleepwalking
o Sleepwalking has been used as a defense in numerous cases of murder. In many of these
cases, the defendant has been acquitted because of the sleepwalking defense.
o Insomnia is an inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get enough sleep.
o
o

Sleep apnea occurs when a person stops breathing for nearly half a minute or more,
followed by gasping for breath.
Narcolepsy is a genetic disorder in which the person suddenly and without warning
collapses into REM sleep.
DREAMS (TEXT p. 147)
4.5 Why do people dream, and what do they dream about? (text p. 147)
AP* V.2 Discuss aspects of sleep and dreaming
AP* V.7 Identify the major figures in consciousness research


Freud’s Interpretation: Dreams As Wish Fulfillment
o Manifest content of a dream is the actual dream and its events. Latent content of a dream
is the symbolic content, according to Freud.
The Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis
o Without outside sensory information to explain the activation of the brain cells in the
cortex by the pons area, the association areas of the cortex synthesize a story, or dream, to
explain that activation in the activation-synthesis hypothesis.
o A revision of activation-synthesis theory, the activation-information-mode model (AIM)
states that information experienced during waking hours can influence the synthesis of
dreams.
ALTERED STATES: HYPNOSIS (TEXT p. 151)
 Steps in Hypnotic Induction
4.6 How does hypnosis affect consciousness? (text p. 151)
AP* V.3 Describe historic and contemporary uses of hypnosis
AP* V.4 Explain hypnotic phenomena
The hypnotist will tell the person to relax and feel tired, to focus on what is being said, to
let go of inhibitions and accept suggestions, and to use vivid imagination.
Fact or Myth: What Can Hypnosis Really Do?
o Hypnosis cannot give increased strength, reliably enhance memory, or regress people to
an earlier age or an earlier life, but it can produce amnesia, reduce pain, and alter sensory
impressions.
Theories of Hypnosis
o


AP* V.7 Identify the major figures in consciousness research
o
o
o
Hilgard believed that a person under hypnosis is in a state of dissociation, in which one
part of consciousness is hypnotized and susceptible to suggestion, while another part is
aware of everything that occurs.
Other theorists believe that the hypnotized subject is merely playing a social role, that of
the hypnotized person. This is called the social-cognitive theory of hypnosis.
LINK to Chapter Fourteen, Social Psychology, pp. 586-587
ALTERED STATES: PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS (TEXT p. 154)
 Physical Dependence
AP* V.6 Discuss drug dependence, addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal
4.7 What is the difference between a physical dependence and a psychological dependence on a drug?
(text p. 155)
o Drugs that are physically addictive cause the user’s body to crave the drug. When
deprived of the drug, the user will go through physical withdrawal.
o Drug tolerance occurs as the user’s body becomes conditioned to the level of drug. After a
time, the user must take more and more of the drug to get the same effect.
 Psychological Dependence
o In psychological dependence, the user believes that he or she needs the drug to function
well and maintain a sense of well-being. Any drug can produce psychological dependence.
AP* V.5 Identify the major psychoactive drug categories and classify specific drugs, including their
psychological and physiological effects



Stimulants: Up, Up, and Away
o Amphetamines are synthetic drugs such as Benzedrine or Dexedrine. They help people
stay awake and reduce appetite, but are highly physically addictive.
o Cocaine is highly addictive and can cause convulsions and death in some first-time users.
o Nicotine is a mild but toxic stimulant and is very physically addictive.
o Caffeine is the most commonly used stimulant, found in coffee, tea, chocolate, and many
sodas.
Down in the Valley: Depressants
o Barbiturates, also known as major tranquilizers, have a sedative effect and are used as
sleeping pills.
o The minor tranquilizers are benzodiazepines such as Valium or Xanax.
Alcohol
o Alcohol is the most commonly used and abused depressant.
o Alcohol can interact with the other depressants.
 Narcotics: I Feel Your Pain
4.9 What are some of the effects and dangers of using narcotics and hallucinogens, including
marijuana? (text p. 162)
o Narcotics are pain-relieving drugs of the depressant class that are derived from the opium
poppy.
o Opium is the earliest form of this drug
o Morphine is a more refined version of opium but is highly addictive
o Heroin was believed to be a purer form of morphine and therefore less addictive, but in
fact is even more powerfully addictive.
o Methadone has the ability to control the symptoms of heroin or morphine withdrawal
without the euphoria, or “high,” of heroin or morphine.
 Hallucinogens: Higher and Higher
o Hallucinogens are stimulants that alter the brain’s interpretation of sensations, creating
hallucinations. There are three synthetically created hallucinogens, LSD, PCP, and
MDMA.
o There are three naturally-occurring hallucinogens: mescaline, psilocybin, and marijuana
 Marijuana
o Marijuana is a mild hallucinogen, producing a mild euphoria and feelings of relaxation in
its users. Larger doses can lead to hallucinations and paranoia. It is carcinogenic and
impairs learning and memory.
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY TO EVERYDAY LIFE
Are You Sleep Deprived? (TEXT p. 167)
4.10
How serious is the problem of sleep deprivation? (text p. 167)
AP* V.2 Discuss aspects of sleep and dreaming.
o
Sleep deprivation is a serious disorder responsible for a large portion of traffic accidents
and fatalities as well as increased stress, depression, anxiety, reduced productivity, and
risk-taking behavior.
Causes of sleep deprivation include sleep disorders such as apnea and narcolepsy,
failure of people to go to sleep or stay asleep for an adequate amount of time, worrying,
and the influence of some drugs.