Anthropological Methods
Anthropology 330
Kimberly Porter Martin
Anthropological Methods
There are two general strategies used to study
culture in anthropology:
1. Ethnography – the detailed study of one culture
2. Ethnology – the comparative study of cultures
Ethnographies provide the data; ethnology draws
generalizations.
What is Ethnography?
DEFINITION
Ethnography is
the detailed
description of a
single culture
through
fieldwork and
participant
observation.
KEY COMPONENTS
1.
2.
3.
Ethnography can be both a
process and a product
The ethnography process
involves fieldwork and first
hand experience studying
and participating in another
culture
The ethnography product can
be presented in book, film or
video form
The Human Relations Area Files
(HRAF)
The world’s largest anthropological data
bank.
 Developed for the purpose of testing
hypotheses and building theory.
 Ethnographic data on over 300 cultures
organized according to 700 different
subjects.

What is Fieldwork?
DEFINITION
Fieldwork involves
going to live in the
group you want to
study for a
prolonged period
of time
KEY COMPONENTS
1.
2.
3.
Fieldwork gives first-hand
information about a group
Fieldwork usually lasts for a
prolonged period of time,
frequently at least one year
so that seasonal differences
can be studied
Fieldworkers use a wide
variety of data collection
methods to gather
information about the
culture in which they are
living.
Basic Stages of Field Research
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Selecting a research problem
Formulating a research design
Collecting the data
Analyzing the data
Interpreting the data
Reporting the results
Preparing for Fieldwork
Obtain funding from a source that supports
anthropological research.
 Take the proper health precautions.
 Obtain permission or clearance from the
host government.
 Become proficient in the local language.
 Make arrangements for personal
possessions while out of the country.

Ethics and Anthropology
Areas of responsibility for anthropologists:
 The people under study
 The local communities
 The host governments and their own government
 Other members of the scholarly community
 Organizations that sponsor research
 Their own students
Avoiding The Far Side


Cultural
anthropologists often
have an obstructive
effect on the people
they study.
They must be careful
to disrupt cultural
patterns and beliefs as
little as possible.
Fieldwork Settings
Traditional or Western cultures
Rural or Urban
Societies or Sub-cultures
The study of everyday life in
the state of Bahia in Brazil
(above) presents different
problems and challenges to
the field anthropologist than
does the study of village life
in Namibia (below).
Common Issues in Fieldwork

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
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Dealing with Culture Shock
Language difficulties
Gaining acceptance in the community.
Selecting the most appropriate data-gathering
techniques.
Understanding how to operate within the local
culture and political structure.
Taking precautions against investigator bias.
Choosing knowledgeable informants.
Be willing to reevaluate findings in the light of
new evidence.
What Kinds of Methods Are
Used in Fieldwork?
 Observation
 Language
 Photography
and
acquisition
 ParticipantObservation
 Interviewing
 Mapping
Videography
 Geneology
 Document analysis
 Surveys
 Census taking
Data Recording Methods
Field notes
 Photo and video records
 Computer spread sheets
 Journaling

What is Observation?
DEFINITION
Collecting data
about actions,
contexts, props,
roles and kinds of
participation in
both individual
and social
situations.
KEY COMPONENTS
1.
2.
3.
Observation is such an obvious
way to collect information that
we sometimes don’t note it as a
research method
Observation is the only way of
collecting information in a new
cultural context when the
researcher does not speak the
language.
Observations are recorded in
detailed field notes that record
behaviors, contexts, props,
roles and participants.
Why Language Acquisition?
Learning the
native language
of the group is
essential to the
study of culture
for several
reasons:

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Interviewing depends on being
able to speak the native
language.
Participation depends on being
able to speak in social situations.
Words commonly do not translate
exactly from one language to
another.
Word are labels for cultural
categories. In order to
understand a culture, you must
know something about the kinds
of categories people use to
organize the world.
What is ParticipantObservation?
DEFINITION
Participating in
the social events,
rituals and daily
activities of the
group they are
studying
KEY COMPONENTS
1.
2.
3.
Participation gives the researcher
a visceral and emotional
perspective on the activities of the
group.
Participation is only possible in
limited kinds of situations defined
the gender, age and other
qualifications of the researcher.
Participation gives the researcher
roles to play in the group that
allow him/her to be more
accepted.
Guidelines for ParticipantObservation Fieldwork

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When introducing oneself, select one role and use
it consistently.
Proceed slowly.
Assume the role of a student wanting to learn
more about a subject on which the people are the
experts.
Establish relationships with key informants of
whom you can ask the “stupid” questions of an
outsider
Participant Observation
Anthropologist
Mark Jenike
weighs a duiker
that was caught
by a Lese hunter
in Zaire, central
Africa.
Kim Martin
with Oaxacan
family of
embroiderers.
Alan Rumsey listens
to a warrior from
Highland New
Guinea while
collecting linguistic
anthropological data.
Participant-Observation
Advantages
Focuses on the emic
perspective
Enables fieldworkers to
distinguish actual from
expected behavior.
Disadvantages
Small sample size
Difficult to obtain
standardized comparable
data
Problems of recording
Permits observation of
nonverbal behavior
Allows the interaction of
factors to be observed and
documented
Obtrusive effect on subject
matter
What is Interviewing?
KEY COMPONENTS
1.
DEFINITION
Asking
questions of
insider
members of the
group you are
studying.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The people interviewed are
generally called “informants”
Interviewing allows the researcher
to find out WHY things are done
Interviewing allows the researcher
to find out what things MEAN.
Interviews can be structured, where
the researcher asks for specific
information.
Interviews can be unstructured,
where the researcher encourages
the speaker to talk about a certain
topic, and does not ask specific
questions.
What is Ethnographic
Interviewing?
DEFINITION
An interviewing
technique that
uses content free
questions to get
an insiders view
of cultural
material.
KEY COMPONENTS
1.
The interviewer does not have to
know anything but the word/label
for the concept he/she wants to
know more about.
2.
The results are an “emic” or
insiders view of the topic with
minimal researcher bias.
3.
Content-free (frame elicitation)
questions are used as probes, e.g.:
4.
Tell me about ____________.
5.
Are there different kinds of
____?
What is Mapping?
DEFINITION
Drawing
sketches and
plans for things
that are
important to
the culture
USES FOR MAPPING
 Maps can record geography
and resource distribution
 Maps can record ownership
of resources or material
possessions.
 Maps can record social
locations and activities.
 Researchers can make their
own maps or use existing
ones to record data.
What are Photography and
Videography?
DEFINITION
The use of
photos, videos
and/or film to
record aspects
of the culture
USES FOR PHOTOGRAPHY AND
VIDEOGRAPHY
 Photographs can be used to
communicate about things or
events when language is not
adequate
 Photographs and video can
record complex activities that
cannot be completely recorded
though observation or
participant-observation.
 Photographs and videos can
record color, sound and
emotional components not
accessible through other
methods
What is Geneology?
DEFINITION
The collection
and recording
of data about
family
structure and
membership
REASONS FOR DOING
GENEOLOGY
 Geneological data includes
kinship by birth, marriage
and fictive relationships
 Geneological data provides
a model for how family and
social organization is
structured
 Geneological data provides
information about priorities
and values within a society
What is Document Analysis?
DEFINITION
The study of
existing written
documents that
can provide
information
about a group
DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
EXAMPLES
 Church records can provide
geneological records from
the past
 Historic accounts provide
comparative information
about how culture change
has occurred
 Political records document
the passage of authority and
leadership over time.
What is Survey Research?
DEFINITION
The use of
written
questionnaires
to collect
information.
ISSUES WITH SURVEYS
 Surveys are the least useful
method for anthropologists
generally
 Surveys presume that people can
read
 Surveys provide impersonal,
statistical data that does not give
details about the culture and
how it works.
 Surveys are usually used in a
final phase of research where
specific information is needed.
What is Ethnology?
DEFINITION
Ethnology is the
process of comparing
and contrasting a
variety of cultures to
identify general rules
about how culture
works.
KEY COMPONENTS
1.
2.
3.
Ethnology uses
ethnographies as the basis
of comparison
Ethnology studies
multiple cultures at one
time
Ethnology seeks to create
hypotheses and theories to
explain how culture works
Powerpoint Study Guide
Ethnography
Human Relations Area Files
(HRAF)
Fieldwork
Participant Observation
Geneology
Census taking
Ethnographic Interviewing
Ethnology
Document Analysis
Mapping
Journaling
Fieldnotes
Ethical Considerations