Class 2
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Questions, comments
Discussion of Assignment 1
Assign
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Assignment 3 (start in class on 8/30; due in class on
9/4)
Readings
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CS 4001
Gift of Fire: Ch 10 (8/30)
Mary Jean Harrold
1
Quick Quiz
1.
2.
What is an argument? Give an example of a dialogue that is not
an argument?
What are
1.
2.
3.
4.
types of arguments?
Essential components of an argument?
What is the difference between “truth seeking” and “persuasion” in
argumentation?
What does it mean to
1.
2.
5.
Name
Read as a believer?
Read as a doubter?
What are three situations in your life/career that you anticipate
(during the next five years) will require you to make an persuasive
argument? (list the situation, who will be involved, etc.)
CS 4001
Mary Jean Harrold
2
Argument
CS 4001
Mary Jean Harrold
3
Argument
 Not a “fight” or a “debate”
 The connotation that an argument is a heated
disagreement does not apply here
 We are not concerned with formal pro-con debates
where one position or another is argued.
 An argument can be explicit or implicit
 Explicit—direct argument with claims and supporting
reasoning and evidence.
 Implicit—visual image, cartoon, narrative, poem, etc.
CS 4001
Mary Jean Harrold
4
Explicit Argument
 An argument makes claims that require
justification
 often in form of a dialogue involving claims and
counterclaims
 Explicit or implicit, argument has some
necessary components
 set of two or more conflicting assertions
 attempt to resolve the conflict through and appeal to reason
(usually backed by evidence).
CS 4001
Mary Jean Harrold
5
Explicit Argument (cont’d)
 Argument is both a product and a process
 Process—argumentation is a process, often involving
a conversation or dialogue.
 Product—the product of an argument is a summing
up of the contributions or the conclusion
CS 4001
Mary Jean Harrold
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Explicit Argument (cont’d)
 Argument is a balance between truth seeking
and persuasion
 Truth-seeking—the best solution; an optimal solution
 Persuasion—what reasons and evidence that best
speak to audience’s values and views
CS 4001
Mary Jean Harrold
7
The Problem of Truth
(Truth versus Persuasion)
 What’s the balance? (Too much tilt towards
persuasion makes argument propaganda)
 May have to sacrifice winning a debate in terms
of higher goals, Truth and Goodness
 Socrates versus the Sophists (Athens, 5th century
B.C.)
 Socrates—the goal of debate is to rid the world of error
 Sophists—Mercenary debaters who relied on any persuasive
technique to win. There are no basic assumptions, no
fundamental principles, no truths
CS 4001
Mary Jean Harrold
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The Problem of Truth
(Truth versus Persuasion) (cont’d)
 But is it better to sometimes win a debate, even
if have to lean more towards persuasion than
truth-seeking?
 And what is truth anyway? Could arguers begin
from different basic principles and thus different
versions of truth? What is “good” or the “best
solution”? That can depend on your starting
premises.
CS 4001
Mary Jean Harrold
9
Successful Argumentation:
The Well-Functioning Committee
 Committee: A small group seeking the solution
to a problem
 Committees sometimes get a bad name, but good
committees have done some very important work in
social, political, and cultural settings
 Exercise: University Standards Committee (p. 17 in
WA book)
CS 4001
Mary Jean Harrold
10
Reading Sympathetically and
Critically
 To read arguments effectively, adopt a multi-step
approach
 Read as a believer
 Read as a doubter
 Consider alternative views, and analyze sources of
disagreement
 Use disagreement productively to prompt further
investigation
“The idea that we should be open to all ideas is very different from
the supposition that all ideas are equally valid”
--Lawrence Summers, President, Harvard University
CS 4001
Mary Jean Harrold
11
Reading as a Believer
 Practice “empathic listening” (see the world
through the author’s eyes)
 Requires putting aside your own viewpoint for
the moment
 For this AND the other steps in reading
arguments effectively, you must:
 read argument carefully for general meaning.
 analyze each paragraph for says and does
 A does statement identifies a paragraph’s function
 A says statement summarizes the paragraph’s content
CS 4001
Mary Jean Harrold
12
Reading as a Doubter
 Whether you tend to agree with the argument or
not, you should now read it critically or
skeptically
 Demand more proof, doubt evidence given,
challenge the author’s assumptions and values.
 What is the background of the author or his or her
sources? What bias is being brought forward?
 What are the source of the claims made?
 Are alternatives ignored?
CS 4001
Mary Jean Harrold
13
Considering Alternative Views and
Analyzing Sources of Disagreement
 Since an argument involves two or more
conflicting assertions, you must be sure to
consider the important disagreements.
 Disagreements may be:
 -about facts or reality. “Facts” are often not the
empirical facts of science, but are often contested.
 -about values, beliefs, or assumptions. For example,
sometimes these disagreements may manifest
themselves as disagreements about definitions (e.g.,
what is pornography or what is a minority).
CS 4001
Mary Jean Harrold
14
Using Disagreement Productively
to Prompt Further Investigation
 Disagreement is both a strategy for reading
arguments and a bridge towards constructing
your own arguments
 Seek out sources of facts and more complete
versions of alternative (and the current) views.
 Determine what values are at stake in the issue and
articulate your own values.
 Consider ways to synthesize alternative views.
CS 4001
Mary Jean Harrold
15