REPORT WRITING
Rajnish Kumar
Professor IT
National Academy of Indian Railways
Structure of Presentation
Format of a
Report
About
Plagiarism
How to cite
references
Use of Latin
terms
Common
spelling
errors
Common
language
errors
Format of Report/Paper
What should a report contain?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Cover page
Inner cover page
Acknowledgments
Contents
List of symbols, figures and tables, if any
Preface
Introduction
Literature review
Chapters covering the work
Conclusion
References
Appendices
Preface
The preface should contain information
about:
• The purpose of the report
• The history of the project
• Major contents of the report
in about 500-1000 words
Introduction
The introduction should comprise:
• A short historical review
• A brief description of the methods
• The limitations of the report
• Information on accuracy of the given data
• Structure of the report.
Mechanics of Report
only a guide
Paper –
Margins –
A4 size
1.5 inch left
1 inch right, top and bottom
Font
Times New Roman 12 size
Heading Font
Arial 14
Second heading
Times New Roman or Arial 12 Bold
Third heading
Times New Roman or Arial 12 Italics
Spacing
1.5
Best is to use standard word DEFAULT Style set
General Guidelines
1. All tables and figures must be numbered
2. If abbreviations which are uncommon are used, list of
abbreviations should be prepared and placed after list
of table/figures
3. Pages should be numbered starting from Introduction,
not before that.
4. Consistent spacing must be given throughout the report.
Example of formatting - CITATIONs
The prescribed style of citation is as follows:
Sample Book References:
Pawlak, Z. (1991). Rough sets: Theoretical aspects of reasoning about data.
Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006).
Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Sample Reference to Chapter in Book:
Ravallion, M. (2007). Transfers and safety nets in poor countries: Revisiting the
trade-offs and policy options. In V. Abhijit, R. B. Banerjee, & D. Mukherjee (Eds.),
Understanding poverty (pp. 203– 230). Oxford University Press.
Sample Journal Reference:
Bose, I. (2006). ‘Deciding the financial health of dot-coms using rough sets’.
Information & Management, 43(7), 835– 846.
So……
• If you follow one style, there is no effort in
converting a report into a paper ready for
being published.
• We’ll cover on how to quote references in
the report in the next part,
avoiding plagiarism
Avoiding Plagiarism
Plagiarism – Definition
• Taking and using the thoughts, writings,
and inventions of another person as one's
own
• Using someone’s ideas without citing or
quoting; thereby, receiving credit for
someone else’s intellectual effort
11
Forms of plagiarism
• Copying from a single source
• Copying from several sources
• Paraphrasing
• Collusion
12
How to avoid plagiarism
• Use quotes for
– Information that comes directly from any
source
– Words, spoken or written, that you use directly
from another person
• Make sure you document the source
13
How to avoid plagiarism
• Paraphrase
– Write the information in your own words, but
do not change its meaning or intention
– Because you are using someone else’s idea,
always mention the source even if you use
your own words
14
Common knowledge
• Any information, fact, or statement that is
widespread and known by a variety of people
is considered common knowledge
– John Adams was the second president of USA
– The Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on
December 7, 1941
• There is no need to give credit to information
that is of common knowledge
15
No need to cite
Common knowledge
Examples of Common Knowledge (Source:
http://gethelp.library.upenn.edu/PORT/documentation/commonknowledge.ht
ml
Not every fact in the report needs to be documented. Facts that are
widely known—common knowledge—can stand by themselves.
Examples of statements expressing common knowledge:
George Washington was the first president.
Plato spent most of his life in Athens.
Maine has a lower yearly average temperature
than Florida.
Any statement that originates from another source and contains
information that is not common knowledge must be cited.
No need to cite
Common knowledge
Examples of statements that don't express common knowledge:
Civilizations that were aware of geese usually considered
them intermediaries between heaven and earth
(Toussaint-Samat 352).
The Chinese fishing industry produces 800,000 tons of fish
annually (Toussaint-Samat 328).
The first international coffee syndicate was based in
Germany (Toussaint-Samat 590).
These statements aren't surrounded by quotation marks because
they aren't the original authors' words but must be cited because
they express information that involves facts that are not commonly
known.
When should I cite?
Is it your idea?
Yes
No
Is it common knowledge?
No need to cite
No
CITE
18
Accidental plagiarism
• Using words from another source without
indicating where they came from.
• Ways to avoid accidental plagiarism:
– Careful note taking
– A clear understanding of the rules for quoting,
paraphrasing, and summarizing sources
19
When in doubt, cite.
Read this
https://www.writecheck.com/static/ways_to_avoid_plagiarism.html
20
Plagiarism detection software
http://turnitin.com/
21
Terminology: Fair Use
• Fair Use is a statute under copyright law that
allows for the use of limited portions of a
work that has copyright without having to
have permission from the original author. It
was created for the purposes of education
and research.
• BIG QUESTION, what qualifies as a "limited
portion"?
How to Quote in a Report
Two styles
MLA- Modern Language Association
APA – American Psychological
Association
MLA Quotations
• Indirect: Some researchers note that "children are
totally insensitive to their parents' shyness"
(Zimbardo 62).
• Direct: Zimbardo notes that “children are totally
insensitive to their parents’ shyness” (62).
• Paraphrasing: Some researchers have observed
that children seem unaware that their parents are
considered bashful (Zimbardo 62).
APA or Chicago Quotations
• Indirect: Some researchers note that
"children are totally insensitive to their
parents' shyness" (Zimbardo, 1977, p.62).
• Direct: Zimbardo (1977) notes that “Children
are totally insensitive to their parents’
shyness” (p. 62).
• Paraphrasing: Some researchers have
observed that children seem oblivious to their
parents’ bashfulness (Zimbardo, 1977).
MLA Citations
Book
Zimbardo, Philip G. Shyness: What It Is, What To Do
About It. Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus Books, 1977.
Print.
Essay/Chapter in a Book
Swanson, Gunnar. "Graphic Design Education as a
Liberal Art: Design and Knowledge in the University
and The 'Real World.'" The Education of a Graphic
Designer. Ed. Steven Heller. New York: Allworth Press,
1998. 13-24. Print.
** Many of these examples came from the OWL at Purdue **
MLA Citations
Article
Bagchi, Alaknanda. "Conflicting Nationalisms: The Voice
of the Subaltern in Mahasweta Devi's Bashai Tudu."
Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature 15.1 (1996): 4150. Print.
Article from a Database
Langhamer, Claire. “Love and Courtship in MidTwentieth-Century England.” Historical Journal 50.1
(2007): 173-96. ProQuest. Web. 27 May 2009.
** Many of these examples came from the OWL at Purdue **
MLA Citations
Entire Website
The Purdue OWL Family of Sites. The
Writing Lab and OWL at Purdue and Purdue
U, 2008. Web. 6 September 2012.
Page on a Website
"How to Make Vegetarian Chili." eHow.com.
eHow, n.d. Web. 24 Feb. 2012.
** Many of these examples came from the OWL at Purdue **
APA Citations
Book
Zimbardo, P.G. (1977). Shyness: What it is,
what to do about it. Cambridge, Mass.:
Perseus Books.
Essay/Chapter in a Book
O'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and
women's gender role journeys: Metaphor for
healing, transition, and transformation. In B.
R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across the
life cycle (pp. 107-123). New York: Springer.
** Many of these examples came from the OWL at Purdue **
APA Citations
Article
Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening. The New
Criterion, 15(30), 5-13.
Article from a Database
APA does not require that a citation for an article
in a database document that fact. You can cite an
article you find in a database the same way you’d
cite a regular print article, as in the example
above.
** Many of these examples came from the OWL at Purdue **
APA Citations
Website
Lowe, M. (2012). Megan Lowe @ ULM.
January 29, 2012, from
http://www.ulm./edu/~lowe.
Item Without Author
Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th
ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: MerriamWebster.
** Many of these examples came from the OWL at Purdue **
Presentation Resources
The Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL)
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
Harvard Guide to Using Sources
http://isites.harvard.edu/icb/icb.do?keyword=k70847&pageid=icb.page3
42054
https://www.writecheck.com/static/common_grammar_mistakes.html
http://www.apastyle.org/
http://www.mla.org/
!
?
;
:
“
‘
,
.
_
{}
()
/
Tips on Punctuation
Adapted from The Craft of Editing (Springer-Verlag, 2000) and The Craft of Scientific Writing, 3rd edition (Springer-Verlag, 1996).
Punctuation rules are designed to have
sentences be read one way
Colon: a colon introduces a formal list, long quotation,
equation, or definition.
Semi-Colon: a semi-colon either joins two
independent clauses (closely linked in thought) or
separates complex items in a list.
Dash: a dash acts as a parenthesis to separate items
that cannot be separated by commas.
Comma: a comma separates details in a sentence.
A colon introduces a formal list,
long quotation, equation, or
definition
We studied five types of marsupials: opossums,
bandicoots, koalas, wombats, and kangaroos.
The laboratory growth of this crystal made possible a new
astronomical tool: a gamma-ray detector with high-energy
resolution.
In formal writing, what is on the left side of the colon should stand alone
as a separate sentence.
Once the list ends, the sentence ends.
Although equations are separated by white space,
they should be treated as part of the sentence
To calculate the strain, , we used equation 1:

=

,
(1)
E
where  is the stress estimated by FEPC and E is the modulus of
elasticity of aluminum.
Em-dashes act as parentheses to
separate items that commas cannot
Because two isotopes of hydrogen—deuterium and tritium—are
lightweight, can be produced easily, and require little energy, they are
prime candidates to begin the fusion process.
After one year, we measured mirror reflectivity at 96 percent—a high
percentage, but not as high as originally expected.
Because two isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium) are
lightweight, can be produced easily, and require little energy, they are
prime candidates to begin the fusion process.
After one year, we measured mirror reflectivity at 96 percent (a high
percentage, but not as high as originally expected).
Commas separate introductory
phrases and clauses
After cooling the exhaust gases continue to expand.
After cooling, the exhaust gases continue to expand.
Commas separate parenthetical details
X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive require the
operator’s attention.
X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive, require the
operator’s attention.
Parenthetical: Set off within or as if within parentheses; qualifying or
explanatory
An error of ,
Possession
Misplaced modifiers are also very common grammar mistakes:
Incorrect: The girl smiled at the camera holding the basket
of fruit. (The camera was holding the basket of fruit?)
Correct: Holding the basket of fruit, the girl smiled at the
camera.
Hyphenation
“We built a high-performance implementation.” “high-performance” is
hyphenated because “high” modifies “performance” not “implementation”.
It's not a “high implementation”. Here, “high-performance” is an adjective.
But: “Our implementation has high performance.” Here, “performance” is a
noun. No hyphen. Similarly: “throughput-oriented workloads” or “GPU-based
implementation”.
For some words, it's not clear if it should be hyphenated or not (e.g. “e-mail” vs.
“email”). The general trend in English is to move toward non-hyphenation
(e.g. “to-morrow” became “tomorrow”).
http://www.ece.ucdavis.edu/~jowens/commonerrors.html
Semi Colon ;;;;
Use the semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units
contain commas.
Example:
This conference has people who have come from Boise, Idaho; Los
Angeles, California; and Nashville, Tennessee.
It is preferable to use a semicolon before introductory words such as namely,
however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they
introduce a complete sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after
the introductory word.
Examples:
You will want to bring many backpacking items; for example, sleeping bags,
pans, and warm clothing will make the trip better.
As we discussed, you will bring two items; i.e., a sleeping bag and a tent are
not optional.
http://www.grammarbook.com/
Apostrophes’’’’’
Apostrophe errors are also common. Apostrophes are used to show
possession, to show that certain words are plural, and to show that letters are
missing.
Apostrophes show possession:
Jim's coat (singular possession)
The children's clothes (possession for plural noun that does not end in s)
The dogs' toys (possession for plural nouns that end in s)
Jim and Ted's apartment (possession shown on the last noun)
Apostrophes are also used in contractions to show missing letters and
numbers:
Can't (cannot)
I'm (I am)
Who's (Who is)
‘70 (1970)
Also, when writing the ‘70s, no apostrophe is present after the number when no
possession is being shown.
https://www.writecheck.com/static/common_grammar_mistakes.html
Two common usage errors are possessives
and subject-verb disagreements
The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of acid
rain (are / is) given in the next section.
are
So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has / have)
remained constant.
has
The goggles protect a (persons / person’s) eyes from any
damaging effects that a laser could cause.
person’s
In accordance with my (boss’ / boss’s) schedule, the first
series of computers was replaced.
boss’s
http://writing.engr.psu.edu/handbook/visuals.html
The verb tenses of sentences that refer to the
document depend upon position
Introduction
This report presents a design for
connecting light emitting diodes to the
HC11 microcontroller.
Results and Discussion
...Figure 1 shows the circuit that connects the
light emitting diodes to the HC11
microcontroller.
Conclusions
This report has presented a design for
connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11
microcontroller. As was shown in Figure 1, the
circuit...
Use numerals when referring to
measurements
When to use numerals
Specific measurements
3 volts, 2 seconds, 1 m/s
Percentages
15 percent
Monetary figures
$3000
Large numerals
5 million
When to write out numbers
Counting (one or two words)
twenty-three gages
Informal measurements
two hours
First word of sentence
Thirty-three...
Certain words are commonly misused
We produced a small (amount, number) of autos this
year, even (fewer, less) than last year.
number
fewer
A company’s success depends on (its / it's)
employees.
its
The new material is (composed / comprised) of plastic
and iodine.
composed
It appears (as if, like) the Department of Energy will
choose the third option.
as if
Certain words are commonly misused
Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for
choosing aluminum.
principal
The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle) of
virtual work.
on
principle
(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed because Regrettably
of thunderstorms.
You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test.
further
The serum had serious side (affects / effects).
effects
Non-words and nonsensical groupings
of words also cause problems
Whichever design you choose is (alright / all right) with me.
all right
(Irregardless / Regardless) of the shipping delay, the work
will stop because of the strike.
Regardless
Applying that set of constraints is a (most unique / unique /
very unique) way to approach the problem.
unique
The serum had (alot / a lot) of side effects.
a lot
Spelling mistakes
Spell check is not the solution
affect
effect
a fact
whether
weather
they’re
their
there
your
you’re
yore
two
to
too
it’s
its
Possible confusion
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
accept/except
affect/effect
assure/ensure/insure
enquire/inquire
Practice (noun) /practise (verb)
recent/resent
Weather/whether
Lose/loose
Common Mistakes in Language
accept vs except
Accept is a verb, which means to agree to
take something .
For example: "I always accept good advice."
Except is a preposition or conjunction,
which means not including.
For example: "I teach every day except
Sunday(s)."
advice vs advise
Advice is a noun, which means an opinion that someone
offers you about what you should do or how you should act
in a particular situation.
For example: "I need someone to give me some advice."
Advise is a verb, which means to give information and
suggest types of action.
For example: "I advise everybody to be nice to their
teacher."
Often in English the noun form ends in ...ice and the verb form ends in ...ise.
affect vs effect
Affect and effect are two words that are commonly confused.
affect is usually a verb (action) - effect is usually a noun (thing)
For example: The noise outside affected my performance.
To have an effect on something or someone
effect is followed by the preposition on and preceded by an
article (an, the)
Meaning: to have an impact on something or someone.
For example: His smile had a strange effect on me.
Effect can also mean "the end result".
For example: The drug has many adverse side effects.
complement (v) vs compliment (n)
Complement is a verb, which means to make something
seem better or more attractive when combined.
For example: "The colours blue and green complement
each other perfectly."
Compliment is a noun, which means a remark that
expresses approval, admiration or respect.
For example: "It was the nicest compliment anyone had
ever paid me.”
Decent, descent, dissent
Decent is an adjective meaning socially acceptable or
good.
For example: Everyone should be entitled to a decent
standard of living.
Descent is a noun which can mean a movement
downwards, or your ancestry.
For example: The plane began its final descent prior to
landing. / "She found out that she was of Welsh
descent."
Dissent is disagreeing – I have put in my dissent note on
file.
for vs since
The prepositions for and since are often used with
time expressions.
For indicates a period of time.
I have been working here for 2 years.
Since indicates a point in time.
I have been working here since the year before
last.
loose vs lose
• Loose is an adjective. If something isn't fixed properly or
it doesn't fit, because it's too large, it's loose.
• For example:• My headphones weren't working, because a wire was
loose.
• Lose is a verb that means to no longer possess
something because you do not know where it is, or because
it has been taken away from you.
• For example:
• A lot of people will lose their job if there is a recession.
principal vs principle
Principal as an adjective means first in order of importance:
For example: The Mississippi is the principal river of the United States.
Principal as a noun can mean the head teacher in a school or college:
For example: The teacher sent the unruly student to see the principal.
Principal as a noun can also mean the original amount of a debt on
which interest is calculated
For example: She lives off the interest and tries to keep the principal intact.
Principle is a noun which means a basic idea, standard of behaviour
or rule that explains or controls how something happens or works:
For example: The country works on the principle that all citizens have
equal rights.
personal vs personnel
Personal is an adjective.
It can mean relating to or belonging to someone.
For example: Your personal belongings are the things that
belong to you.
Personnel is a noun.
The people who work for an organization are the
personnel.
For example: military personnel are the members of an
army.
stationary vs stationery
Stationary means standing still or not moving
For example: "The car was stationary.“
Stationery means the items needed for
writing, such as paper, pens, pencils and
envelopes.
For example: "It is the secretary's job to order
the stationery?“
How to remember:
'e' is for envelopes 'a' is for automobiles.
Another interesting one
Alternate vs. alternative
• An alternate is something or someone that serves in
place of another.
• An alternative is a second option that does not
replace the first.
• For example, when a road undergoing maintenance is
closed to traffic, you have to take an alternate route.
• But when an under-construction road is still accessible
to traffic, you might choose to take an alternative route
to avoid congestion. The first option is still there, and
the alternative gives you a choice.
Common Spelling Mistakes I
Correct
Wrong
Correct
Wrong
supersede
supercede
superceed
pronunciation
pronounciation
accommodation accomodation separate
acommodation
seperate
receive
recieve
necessary
neccesary
necesary
definitely
definately
difinately
address
adress
adres
Common Spelling Mistakes II
Correct
Wrong
Correct
Wrong
occurrence
occurence
useful
usefull
independent
independant
beginning
begining
parallel
paralel
paralell
parrallel
questionnaire questionaire
http://www.learnenglish.de/spelling/CommonSpellingMistakes.htm
Many more such errors
Good Places to learn
• http://www.learnenglish.de/mistakes/CommonMistakes.h
tm
• http://www.engvid.com/english-resource/50-commongrammar-mistakes-in-english/
• http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/errors.html
• http://www.englishforums.com/content/resources/commo
n-spelling-mistakes-in-english.htm
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Lists_of_common_
misspellings
Latin Terms commonly used in Reports
e.g. – for example
i.e. – that is
ibid - Latin word ibidem, which means “in the same place.”
et al - stands for et alii which translates as “and other
people.”
circa- around: e.g. - c. 3000 B.C.
viz - namely
e.g. and i.e
USAGE
Let’s look at some examples of how to use i.e. and e.g. correctly:
YES The rocky planets (e.g., Mercury) are closest to our sun.
NO The rocky planets (i.e., Mercury) are closest to our sun.
Mercury is not equivalent to the rocky planets-they’re not the
same thing. Mercury is just one example of a rocky planet,
therefore e.g. is appropriate.
YES The rocky planets (i.e., Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) are closest to
our sun.
YES Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars (i.e., the rocky planets) are closest to our
sun.
NO The rocky planets (e.g., Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) are closest to our
sun.
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/latin-terms-and-abbreviations/
e.g. and i.e
USAGE
In some instances, i.e. and e.g. may both be acceptable,
but using one or the other will drastically change the
meaning of the sentence. For example:
1. Farmer Brown sells his produce (e.g., apples, oranges,
carrots) at the market.
2. Farmer Brown sells his produce (i.e., apples, oranges,
carrots) at the market.
??? Spot the difference
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/latin-terms-and-abbreviations/
Ibid.
The abbreviation ibid. stands for the Latin word ibidem, which means
“in the same place.”
It is used in endnotes or footnotes when you cite the same source and
page number(s) two or more times.
If you cite the same source but a different page number, you can use
ibid. followed by a comma and the page number(s). Also, note that ibid.
is capitalized when it begins a note.
For example:
1. Barsby, 99-101.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid., 97.
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/latin-terms-and-abbreviations/
et al.
EXAMPLE: Even the recent Gartner report from star analyst Jane
Disbrow et al. shows that 61% of their customers have been
audited by at least one software vendor. [Forbes]
Et al.is an abbreviation of the Latin loanphrase et alii, meaning and
others. It is similar to etc.(short for et cetera, meaning and the rest),
but whereas etc. applies to things, et al. applies to people.
If you cite one author in body text, it should be “AuthorOne”. Two
authors: “AuthorOne and AuthorTwo”. Three or more authors:
“AuthorOne et al.”
Name of the first author will be given in full and then followed by et al.
As with etc., there is no need to include ‘and’ before et al.
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/latin-terms-and-abbreviations/
Importance of Punctuation
Now you
can do