The Process of Management
Transformational Leadership
Focus of Lecture
cavorite-lis
n
-fGET
tg/stores/d
community
rate-item
cust-rec
just-say-no
true
m/justsay
n
GET
Example of a
Practical
Argument
A Process View of Leadership
Contemporaneous Events
Onset of
Adaptive
Challenge
Living
Normally
Intervening
Prior Events
Episode
Adapting
Related Events
Later
Events
Significant Ideas
Technical problems and adaptive challenges are
behaviorally very different situations
 Meeting adaptive challenges is a process
 Authority relations are resources and constraints
on the exercise of leadership
 Skilful use of these resources is necessary to
meet adaptive challenges, but authority figures
will still run the risk of receiving blame for
failing to set things right – right away

Normative Claims

Theory of value (“the good”)
– Participants better off, fair distribution of gains and
losses, sustained mutually beneficial relationships
– Resilience (a general capacity – of individuals and
groups to respond well to future adaptive challenges)

Theory of agency
– Individuals are moral agents and authority figures bear
some of the responsibility for leading the process of
adaptive work
– Reason and intelligence are required - choices should
proceed from value clarification and reality testing
One Source of Descriptive
Claims
Dominant animals
dominate the attention
of the band – serve
as reference points
by which others orient
themselves
Authority relationships
resemble the dominance
and deference
relationships of our
primate ancestors
Authority figure
Societies(A)
of chimpanzees
and gorillas
suggest that dominant members
perform at least five social functions:
(1) Choosing the direction of group
movement, (2) protecting the group
from predators, (3) orienting members
to their status
place, (4) controlling
(B)and
Followers
conflict, and (5) maintaining norms,
including norms of mating and
resource allocation.
Outline of the Argument




It is a (complex) fact that individuals and collectivities
sometimes face “crisis” situations, defined as ones where
following routine procedures, enacting familiar patterns of
social relations, and maintaining the same attitudes and
values would be futile or counterproductive
Presumably, collectivities want to respond effectively to
crises and, so, the issue is how to accomplish this goal
Responding effectively to a crisis situation requires
intellectual, emotional, and political work – let’s call the
process involved “adaptive work”
So, as a preliminary inference, the issue is how to conduct
the process of adaptive work
Outline of the Argument (2)



The responsibility for conducting this process should not
rest exclusively on the shoulders of authority figures
Therefore, the 1st order practical question about crisis
situations is, “How should people (including but not
limited to authorities) meet an adaptive challenge?”
A 2nd order practical question is, What should authority
figures do in the face of a crisis? Given the earlier
discussion, this question should be formulated as, “What
contribution should authorities make to the process of
adaptive work?” Better yet, “How should authorities
intervene in a crisis situation, as it unfolds over time, so
that the ultimate outcome of the process of adaptive work
is an effective response to the crisis?”
Outline of the Argument (3)


To answer this 2nd order practical question, we need to
inquire into how the process of adaptive work operates and
then think about how authorities should take such
knowledge into account
The process of adaptive work is influenced by more
elementary social and psychological processes, such as
– How people come to believe that they face a serious (urgent)
problem
– How people search for acceptable adaptations to such a problem
– How people come to feel distress
– How people process information when they are under stress
– What people expect of authorities in crisis situations
– How people respond when authorities are not meeting such
expectations
Outline of the Argument (4)

These elementary social and psychological processes, and others,
foster causal connections between authority figures’ actions
(messages) and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions as a crisis
situation (episode) unfolds
– Authority figures’ messages tend to receive a high level of attention because
people look to authorities for answers and reassurance in crisis situations
– When authority figures’ messages do not fully match expectations for answers
and prompt authoritative responses, stress levels increase
– Such stress can mobilize people to do adaptive work
– At the same time, people whose expectations have been disappointed may shift
blame for the situation toward the authorities (scapegoating)
– Authorities will naturally “feel the heat”, and their natural inclination may be to
meet the expectations (by, e.g., providing easy answers or pursuing diversions)
Outline of the Argument (5)

Given what we know about the variety of elementary social and
psychological processes that are normally activated in a crisis
situation, it is reasonable for authority figures to act as moral agents
bearing in mind that
– Authority gives them “resources” to be applied in a calculating way to influence
the course of episodes of adaptive work
– In calculating how to apply these resources, authorities should work with a
“model” of the process of adaptive work and draw information about the
specifics of the situation as it unfolds (e.g., perceptions of problems, stress
levels, etc.)
– Authority figures, if they are leading the process of adaptive work, will
expectably feel substantial psychological pressure to relieve people’s distress
– Provided that distress has not reached unproductive levels, authority figures
should summon their courage and poise to hold steady – for a while
Distress levels
Unproductive scenario (1)
Easy answer chosen
Work avoidance
t
Unproductive scenario (2)
Distress levels
Severe failure in fulfilling authority functions
Disabled from
doing adaptive work
Provocation
t
Distress levels
Productive scenario
Resolution
Adaptive work underway
Provocation
t
Flow of a Practical Argument
Descriptive
Claims
Analysis of elementary social
processes that are typically
activated in a crisis situation
A group recognizes the presence of a problem when the level of stress in
the group goes up.
Stress arises from disorientation in the face of a complex task
.
We expect the office holder to provide decisive direction, protection,
orientation, control of conflict, and the restoration of norms.
(not a complete list)
Outline of the Argument (6)

Given what we know about the social and
psychological processes normally activated in a
crisis situation, and given presumptions about
moral agency, it is reasonable to suggest that
authority figures approach their task of designing
(and improvising) an intervention by applying five
principles of leadership to the situation at hand
5 Strategic Principles of Leadership
addressed to Authority Figures
1.
Identify the adaptive challenge
Diagnose the situation in light of the values at stake
2.
Regulate distress
High, persistent enough to motivate adaptive work
Low enough to be tolerable
3.
4.
Direct disciplined attention to ripening issues
Give the (adaptive) work back to the people
-
5.
Place and develop responsibility by putting pressure on the
people with the problem
Protect voices of leadership without authority
- Give cover to those who raise hard questions and generate
distress; make clear limits of cover
Outline of the Argument (7)

The intellectual ability to apply such principles to
situations (increasing prospects for effective
exercise of leadership) would be enhanced by
examination of actual cases of crisis episodes,
examining the interplay of authority figures and
others in the situation
Learning from Experience
(Recent) History
Management
theorizing and
researching
Experiences
Codification
Traditions
of Thought
about Value
and Agency
practical
Elaboration
Analysis of
Practices
Conducting a Leadership
Intervention
Impact
A Practical Example
Consider the following value
propositions:
Who are we and why do we exist?


Our business is to create value and opportunity for
your business. We do this by combining our
financial resources, access to physical
commodities, and knowledge to create innovative
solutions to challenging industrial problems.
Everything we do is about change. Together we
are creating the leading company in the world.
Together, we are defining the company of the
future.
What we believe 1

We begin with a fundamental belief in the
inherent wisdom of open markets. We are
convinced that consumer choice and
competition lead to lower prices and
innovation.
What we believe 2

We are a laboratory for innovation. That is why
we employ the best and the brightest people. And
we believe that every employee can make a
difference here. We encourage people to make a
difference by creating an environment where
everyone is allowed to achieve their full potential
and where everyone has a stake in the outcome.
We think this entrepreneurial approach stimulates
creativity.
What we believe 3

We value diversity. We are committed to
removing all barriers to employment and
advancement based on sex, sexual
orientation, race, religion, age, ethnic
background, national origin or physical
limitation.
What we believe 4

Our success is measured by the success of
our customers. We are committed to
meeting their needs with solutions that offer
them a competitive advantage. And we
work with them in ways that reinforce the
benefits of a long-term partnership.
What we believe 5

In everything we do, we operate safely and
with concern for the environment. This is a
responsibility we take seriously in all the
different places around the world where we
do business.
Our core values of integrity, respect,
excellence and communication 1

We work with customers and prospects
openly, honestly and sincerely. When we
say we will do something, we will do it;
when we say we cannot or will not do
something, we will not do it.
Our core values of integrity, respect,
excellence and communication 2

We treat others as we would like to be
treated ourselves. We do not tolerate
abusive or disrespectful treatment. Ruthless,
callousness, and arrogance do not belong
here.
Our core values of integrity, respect,
excellence and communication 3

We are satisfied with nothing less than the
very best in everything we do. We will
continue to raise the bar for everyone. The
great fun here will be for all of us to
discover just how good we can really be.
Our core values of integrity, respect,
excellence and communication 4

We have an obligation to communicate.
Here, we take time to talk with one another
and to listen. We believe that information is
meant to move and that information moves
people.