Access Psychology
Hannah Butler
hbutler@stvincent.ac.uk
Recap……
• What is an observation?
• What type of research would an observation
be the chosen research method?
• Strengths of observations
• Weaknesses of observations
What is an observation?
• Observational studies are investigations
where the researcher observes a situation
and records what happens but does not
manipulate an independent variable.
When to use an observation?
• Observation deals with actions and behaviour. If
you want to find out what people do, you should
observe them.
• If you want to find out what they think (e.g.,
attitudes, beliefs, expectations, or knowledge),
you should ask them directly. Although there are
exceptions, observation is generally the best
method for studying natural behavior, while
interviews and questionnaires are more
appropriate for exploring opinions and beliefs.
Strengths of observations
Weaknesses of observations
What observation is this?
• The observer is a member of the group being
observed, and takes part in the activities of
the group whilst simultaneously observing
them.
• Participant
• The researcher does not interfere with the
situation. They let things happen naturally.
• Naturalistic
• Fully planned in advance with a coding system
and predetermined sections.
• Structured
• The observer is watching a situation/group of
people without their knowledge.
• Covert
• The situation is controlled by the researcher,
and might even be conducted in a laboratory.
• Controlled
• The observer isn't a member of the group
and simply records behaviour without taking
part.
• Non-Participant
• The people being observed know they are
taking part in the research.
• Overt
Mary Ainsworth-The strange
situation assessment
• It’s easy enough to know when you are attached
to someone because you know how you feel when
you are apart from that person, and, being an
adult, you can put your feelings into words and
describe how it feels.
• However, most attachment research is carried
out using infants and young children, so
psychologists have to devise subtle ways of
researching attachment styles, usually involving
the observational method.
• Psychologist Mary Ainsworth (1913 - 1999)
provided one of the most famous body of
research offering explanations of individual
differences in attachment.
• Mary Ainsworth (1970)
was most famous for
her work using the
‘Strange Situation’.
Mary Ainsworth
• This is an observational
technique that places an
infant in different
situations in order to
research the quality of
attachment to their
caregiver.
16
Strange Situation
• controlled observation
• around 100 middle-class infants and their
mothers were observed using a video camera
in a purpose built laboratory playroom to
assess:
a)
b)
c)
d)
exploration behaviour
separation anxiety
reunion behaviour
stranger anxiety
Strange situation procedure
• The security of attachment in one- to two-yearolds was investigated using the 'strange
situation' procedure, in order to determine the
nature of attachment behaviours and styles of
attachment.
• Ainsworth developed an experimental procedure
in order to observe the variety of attachment
forms exhibited between mothers and infants.
• The experiment is set up in a small room with one
way glass so the behaviour of the infant can be
observed covertly.
• Infants were aged between 12 and 18 months.
• The sample comprised about 100 middle class
American families.
1. The mother and infant go into a
room.
2. The mother sits, and the infant is
placed on the floor and is free to
explore.
3. The stranger enters the room and
tries to engage with the infant
through play and talk.
4. The mother leaves the room. Now the
infant is alone with the stranger. The
stranger tries to comfort the infant if
they get upset, and tries to play with
them.
My mummy’s gone!
Who’s that stranger?
5. The mother returns to the room and
the stranger leaves.
6. The mother leaves the room and the
infant is alone.
7. Instead of the mother returning to
the room, the stranger returns and
tries to comfort and play with the
infant.
My mummy’s
gone! Here she comes
Ahhhh! It’s not… oh no…
where is my mummy?
8. The mother re-enters the room and
the stranger leaves.
• Scoring:
• Strange Situation classifications (i.e.
attachment styles) are based primarily on 4
interaction behaviours directed toward the
mother in the two reunion episodes
• 1)Proximity and contacting seeking
• 2)Contact maintaining
• 3)Avoidance of proximity and contact
• 4)Resistance to contact and comforting
• The observer notes down the behaviour
displayed during 15 second intervals and
scores the behaviour for intensity on a scale
of 1 to 7.
• Other behaviours observed included:
• Exploratory Behaviours e.g. moving around
room, playing with toys, looking around room.
• Search Behaviours e.g. following mother to
door, banging on door, orienting to the door,
looking at door, going to mother’s empty
chair, looking at mother’s empty chair.
• Affect Displays negative, e.g. crying, smiling.
Results
• Ainsworth (1970) identified three main
attachment styles
• secure (type B)
• insecure avoidant (type A)
• insecure ambivalent (type C).
• Ainsworth concluded that these attachment
styles were the result of early interactions
with the mother.
Attachment Types
Secure
Insecureresistant
Insecureavoidant
‘I trust you’
‘I don’t trust you’
‘I don’t care!’
Ainsworth and Bell (1970)
%
Secure
Insecureresistant
Insecureavoidant
66%
12%
22%
Secure attachment
Separation Anxiety
Distressed when mother
leaves.
Stranger Anxiety
Avoidant of stranger when
alone but friendly when
mother present.
Reunion behavior
Positive and happy when
mother returns.
Other
Will use the mother as a
safe base to explore their
environment.
Insecure ambivalent
Separation
Anxiety
Stranger
Anxiety
Reunion
behaviour
Other
Infant shows signs of intense
distress when mother leaves.
Infant avoids the stranger - shows
fear of stranger.
Child approaches mother but
resists contact, may even push
her away.
Infant cries more and explores
less than the other 2 types.
Insecure avoidant
Separation
Anxiety
Infant shows no sign
of distress when
mother leaves.
Stranger Anxiety
Infant is okay with
the stranger and
plays normally when
stranger is present.
Reunion
behavior
Infant shows little
interest when
mother returns.
Other
Mother and stranger
are able to comfort
.
the infant equally
well
Type B-Secure attachment
• Securely attached children comprised the majority of
the sample in Ainsworth’s (1971, 1978) studies.
• Such children feel confident that the attachment
figure will be available to meet their needs. They use
the attachment figure as a safe base to explore the
environment and seek the attachment figure in times
of distress
• Securely attached infants are easily soothed by the
attachment figure when upset. Infants develop a
secure attachment when the caregiver is sensitive to
their signals, and responds appropriately to their
needs.
• According to Bowlby (1980) an individual who has
experienced a secure attachment 'is likely to possess
a representational model of attachment figures(s) as
being available, responsive, and helpful'
Type A-Insecure avoidant
• Insecure avoidant children do not orientate
to their attachment figure while investigating
the environment.
• They are very independent of the attachment
figure both physically and emotionally .
• They do not seek contract with the
attachment figure when distressed.
• Such children are likely to have a caregiver
who is insensitive and rejecting of their
needs.
• The attachment figure may withdraw from
helping during difficult tasks and is often
unavailable during times of emotional distress.
Type C-insecure ambivalent
• The third attachment style identified by Ainsworth
was insecure ambivalent (also called insecure
resistant).
• Here children adopt an ambivalent behavioural style
towards the attachment figure.
• The child will commonly exhibit clingy and dependent
behaviour, but will be rejecting of the attachment
figure when they engage in interaction.
• The child fails to develop any feelings of security
from the attachment figure.
• Accordingly they exhibit difficulty moving away from
the attachment figure to explore novel surroundings.
• When distressed they are difficult to soothe and are
not comforted by interaction with the attachment
figure.
• This behaviour results from an inconsistent level of
response to their needs from the primary caregiver.
Conclusion
• Ainsworth suggested that behaviour in the strange
situation classification was determined by the
behaviour of the primary carer (in this case the
mother).
• For example, securely attached infant are associated
with sensitive & responsive primary care.
• Insecure ambivalent attached infants are associated
with inconsistent primary care. Sometimes the child’s
needs and met and sometime they are ignored by the
mother / father.
• Insecure avoidant infants are associated with
unresponsive primary care. The child comes to believe
that communication of needs has no influence on the
mother / father.
• Ainsworth’s findings provided the first empirical
evidence for Bowlby’s attachment theory..
• For example, securely attached
children develop a positive working model of
themselves and have mental representations
of others as being helpful while viewing
themselves as worthy of respect
• Avoidant children think themselves unworthy
and unacceptable, caused by a rejecting
primary caregiver
• Ambivalent children have negative self image
and exaggerate their emotional responses as
a way to gain attention
• Accordingly, insecure attachment styles are
associated with an increased risk of social
and emotional behavioural problems via the
internal working model.
Evaluation time
Strengths and weaknesses
• What do you think?
• S: The strange situation classification has
been found to have good reliability. This
means that it achieves consistent results.
• For example, a study conducted in Germany
found 78% of the children were classified in
the same way at ages 1 and 6 years.
• W: Although, the Strange Situation is the
most widely used method for assessing infant
attachment to a caregiver, it has been
criticized for being highly artificial and
therefore lacking ecological validity.
• The child is placed in a strange and artificial
environment, and the procedure of the
mother and stranger entering and leaving the
room follows a predetermined script.
• W:Mary Ainsworth's conclusion that the
strange situation can be used to identify the
child's type of attachment has been
criticized on the grounds that it identifies
only the type of attachment to the mother.
• The child may have a different type of
attachment to the father or grandmother,
for example.
• This means that it lacks validity, as it is not
measuring a general attachment style, but
instead an attachment style specific to the
mother.
• W: Some research has shown that the same
child may show different attachment
behaviours on different occasions.
• Children's attachments may change, perhaps
because of changes in the child's
circumstances, so a securely attached child
may appear insecurely attached if the mother
becomes ill or the family circumstances
change.
• W: The strange situation has also been
criticized on ethical grounds. Because the
child is put under stress (separation and
stranger anxiety), the study has broken
the ethical guideline protection of
participants.
• However, in its defence the separation
episodes were curtailed prematurely if the
child became too stressed.
• W: Finally, the studies sample is biased comprising 100 middle class American
families. Therefore, it is difficult to
generalize the findings outside of America
and to working class families.
Summarise each attachment type
• Using notes and previous knowledge,
summarise the key features of each
attachment type
Group project
Each group will be given an attachment type:
Secure attachment
Insecure ambivalent attachment
Insecure avoidance attachment.
Research your given attachment type and
prepare a ten minute group presentation.
• Your presentation must include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
• What behaviour did the observed infant
display that led to them being characterised?
• Characteristics attributed to that specific
attachment type.
• How did the specific attached type occur ie,
what sort of parenting
• How do these specific behaviours relate to
child and adulthood