Illinois 2007 Ethnic/Racial Diversity
2.1 million students in Illinois 45% minority
Growing Diversity in Illinois and the Nation
Right now Illinois Public Students Population consists of:
White, Non-Hispanic
Total Minority Population
54%
45%
LEP students statewide
190,000
Unit 2
Diversity covers a wide range of
differences among students.

Low Income Students

Minority Students

Students with Disabilities

Gender and Sexuality

Limited English Proficiency Students
Reflect for a moment.
Give your honest opinion.
Do you support collective bargaining for public employees?
Reflect for a moment.
Give your honest opinion.
Do you support teachers being unionized?
Brown v. Board of
Education (1954)

Why did Oliver Brown sue
on behalf of his daughter
Linda for admission to her
neighborhood school if as a
moderate state (Kansas)
Topeka schools both Black
and white students were
equal in teachers’ salaries,
curriculum, and the most
basic facilities?
PARENTS OF STUDENTS EXCLUDED FROM
SCHOOLS TRIED TO CLAIM THEIR RIGHTS
In 1885 and 1948 California Courts ruled that minority
children cannot be barred from attending public schools

1885 Chinese Students The California Supreme Court ruled
that it was unconstitutional to deny “a child of Chinese parents
entrance to public schools” based on the 14th Amendment, but it
stays silent on “separate but equal”. San Francisco builds
separate schools for Chinese students.

1948 Latino Students Mendez family sues regarding
segregated schools. The court ruled that separate but equal
violated the equal protection clauses of the 14th amendment and
orders California public schools to desegregate.
Practices of School Segregation Based on Ethnicity
Tape v. Hurley (1885)
See information sheet on EPS 201/202 Homepage for
Summaries of Tape v. Hurley and Mendez v. Westminster

In 1884, Chinese immigrants try to enroll
their seven year old daughter Mamie Tape
at the Spring Valley School, a San
Francisco public school.

San Francisco Board of Education policy
prohibited Chinese children from attending
the city’s public schools.

The California Supreme Court ruled that it
was unconstitutional to deny “a child of
Chinese parents entrance to public schools”
Practices of School Segregation Based on Ethnicity
Tape v. Hurley (1885)
See information sheet on EPS 201/202 Homepage for
Summaries of Tape v. Hurley and Mendez v. Westminster

While the court affirms the right of Chinese children to
a public education based on the 14th Amendment, it
stays silent on “separate but equal”.

The San Francisco Board of Education in response
builds a public Chinese school which Mamie Tape is
forced to attend.
What is the significance of Mendez vs. Westminster (1948)?
Segregation for Latino Students in California
See Court Case Information Sheet on our homepage

Mendez family in Westminster in Orange County
California in the 1940’s..

Two schools in Westminster, Hoover Elementary is
designated for Latinos and 17th Street Elementary for
Whites.

California Federal court rules in favor of Mendez
setting the precedent for the ruling in Brown v. Board
nine years later.
What is the significance of Mendez vs. Westminster (1948)?
Segregation for Latino Students in California
See Court Case Information Sheet on our homepage

The court ruled that separate but equal violated the
equal protection clauses of the 14th amendment and
order California public schools to desegregate.

The ruling is limited only to California. Judge
McCormick the presiding judge argues that social
equality must be a paramount requisite of American
education.
1948 Mendez v. Westminster
2011 Medal of Freedom


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eMoAXggpj_0
Sylvia Mendez 2011 Recipient of Medal of Freedom
ANALYTIC FRAMEWORK
(Tozer)
PE & Ideology explains why, what, how.
IDEOLOGY IDEAS
(See Tozer, Chapter 1)
Explain and Justify
how things work, the
social arrangements.
POLITICAL ECONOMY
Institutions and practices in daily life
Shared beliefs
Social (family, religion, organizations,
ethnicity/race, customs, etc.)
Shared values
Groups differ- dominant
Economic
Political (Laws, Local, State, Federal)
Schools
**Demographics
SCHOOLS
Policies
School Design
Facilities
Curriculum
Extra-curricular
Funding
Teacher Training
Administration
Community
Safety
Resources
School culture
IDEOLOGY of 19th & 20th Centuries
1850-1950
Shared beliefs and values of the white majority






Genetic Inferiority Social Darwinism
IQ Testing-Inherited Intelligence, Social Darwinism
Traditions of Racism
White Supremacy
Separate but “equal”
Meritocracy
14th Amendment All persons born or naturalized in the United States are
citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state
shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or
immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any
person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to
any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Answer these questions on the handout. 2 minutes, collaborate

Why did the 14th amendment fail to protect rights of African
Americans prior to Brown?

Is it legal for a school district to close its schools and deny
students access to public education? Yes
No

If the public schools were closed, who do you think would be
responsible for getting them reopened (list several responsible
stakeholders)?
Why did the 14th amendment fail to
protect the rights of African Americans
and other minorities?
The 14th Amendment interpreted by GOVERNMENT
Congress, Federal Courts, States, and localities.
States continued to set laws, and the Federal government
did not interfere. The 14th amendment was defined narrowly by
the courts. Plessy virtually nullified the 14th amendment.
The law did not impact social customs.
What role did courts play? Supported states until late 1930s.
Teachers’ pay, graduate schools (law, education)
After the Civil War
14th Amendment and
Reconstruction
Would states continue protection
of freed Blacks after the end of
Reconstruction?
After Reconstruction ended,
States curtailed the rights of
free blacks.
How did the Federal government
act?
Thomas Nast (1868) cartoon
“This is a white man’s
government”
Right after the end of the Civil War
Former slave holding states instituted black codes
Mississippi Black Codes:
"Negroes must make annual contracts for their labor in writing; if they
should run away from their tasks, they forfeited their wages for the year.
Whenever it was required of them they must present licenses (in a town
from the mayor; elsewhere from a member of the board of police of the
beat) citing their places of residence and authorizing them to work.
Fugitives from labor were to be arrested and carried back to their
employers. Five dollars a head and mileage would be allowed such negro
catchers. It was made a misdemeanor, punishable with fine or
imprisonment, to persuade a freedman to leave his employer, or to feed the
runaway. Minors were to be apprenticed, if males until they were twentyone, if females until eighteen years of age. Such corporal punishment as a
father would administer to a child might be inflicted upon apprentices by
their masters. Vagrants were to be fined heavily, and if they could not pay
the sum, they were to be hired out to service until the claim was satisfied.
Negroes might not carry knives or firearms unless they were licensed so to
do. It was an offence, to be punished by a fine of $50 and imprisonment for
thirty days, to give or sell intoxicating liquors to a negro. When negroes
could not pay the fines and costs after legal proceedings, they were to be
hired at public outcry by the sheriff to the lowest bidder...."
Social History of
Jim Crow Laws
Laws and customs of oppression.
Anderson, p. 15
Political Economy (Institutions and Practices)
What forces most affected African Americans
in daily life 1865-1954?










LEGAL CONSTITUTION ADVANCES EQUAL RIGHTS 13th, 14th, 15th
Amendments Anderson shows that equality of individuals was not protected by
the Constitution prior to 14th Amendment.
LEGAL FEDERAL LAW FREE BLACKS TARGETED BY Reconstruction Act
of 1867 BUT PROTECTION ended in 1877 with withdrawal of Federal troops.
LEGAL SUPREME COURT 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson “Separate and Unequal”
ORGANIZATIONS KKK (fear) both in the North and South
ACADEMY Science of Social Darwinism, IQ Testing Movement
LEGAL STATE LAWS Jim Crow State and Local Governments (laws and
regulations that limited rights, and voting [used literacy tests and poll taxes] for
free Black males)
SOCIAL PRACTICES Jim Crow Customs
ECONOMY Limited Economic Power for Blacks Employment Structure: share
cropping, low wage jobs, restrictions on work based on race
CLASS High Levels of Poverty among former slaves
SCHOOLS: Poorly funded, limited number of High Schools, 17 states plus D.C.
had some form of forced legal segregation
IDEOLOGY of 19th & 20th Centuries
1850-1950
Shared beliefs and values of the white majority






Genetic Inferiority Social Darwinism
IQ Testing-Inherited Intelligence, Social Darwinism
Traditions of Racism
White Supremacy
Separate but “equal”
Meritocracy
NATIONAL PROBLEM
LEGAL SCHOOL SEGREGATION in 1950
Prohibited (light mix, dots) No legislation (white)
Required (dark)
Local option (dark mix, slants)
CONSTITUTIONAL EQUALITY
Equal access to schools today is based on the 14th
Amendment. But why did it fail to protect
people prior to Brown?
14th Amendment passed in 1868 Section 1. All persons
born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to
the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States
and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall
make or enforce any law which shall abridge the
privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States;
nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or
property, without due process of law; nor deny to any
person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the
laws.
WHY?
Question: Why did the 14th amendment fail to
protect the rights of African Americans and other
minorities?
How was the 14th Amendment interpreted by states and
localities?
States continued to set laws, and the Federal government
did not interfere. The 14th amendment was defined narrowly
by the courts. Plessy v. Ferguson virtually nullified the 14th
amendment. Examples of court cases and laws that affirm it
was weak.
The law did not impact social customs.
How did the court play a role? Supported states until the 1940s.
Supreme Court
Plessy v. Ferguson
Anderson, p. 22

1896 Plessy boarded a train and sat the in car
designated for whites only. The court found that
as long as he could ride the train, the state had
the right to tell him where to sit, even though
accommodations for African American
passengers were inferior to the cars for white
passengers. The picture is a caricature of African
Americans, but not a likeness of Plessy, who was
1/8 African American and light skinned.
SUPREME COURT DECISION (5 TO 4)
NULLIFIED THE EQUAL
PROTECTION CLAUSE of the 14th
Amendment
ALLOWED SEPARATE AND UNEQUAL
What were the consequences of Plessy for schools?
1898 STATE COURT OF GEORGIA COMPLICIT in
discrimination (Anderson, p. 26)
Cumming v. Richmond (1899)
 In 1898, Richmond County closed its only
High School in the state for Black
students, and used the funds for
elementary schools

SUPPORTED HIGH SCHOOLS FOR
WHITE STUDENTS
Court ruled the closing was not
discrimination, but based on trying to best
serve the African American community.
1945 first public high school funded in this
county in Georgia for African American
students since 1898.
EDUCATIONAL REGRESS
Separate and Unequal
Courts would not uphold
equal schools
The legacy of Plessy v. Ferguson touches several
generations of African Americans who do not
have access to a high school education.
In 1916, Mississippi, South Carolina, Louisiana, and North
Carolina had no public high schools for African
Americans.
True or False?
1945 in the South, 77% African Americans of high
school age were not enrolled in high school.
EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
WERE LIMITED, CONTROLLED BY
THE STATES (See Anderson pp. 23, 26, 28-29)
In Mississippi:
 1890s To prevent Blacks from voting--poll taxes and
literacy tests for voting POLITICAL
 1890 35% state school funds spent on black students who
represented 60% of the school aged population
 1940 REDUCED TO 13% state funds spent on black
students who represented 57% of the school aged
population
 1940 half of the public schools for black children met in
privately owned structures (double taxation) ECONOMIC
 1960 80% of Mississippi’s black population had
completed less than 9 years of school (Anderson)
WORLD EVENTS THAT MOVE
AMERICAN SOCIETY TOWARD
CHANGE JUST PRIOR TO BROWN V.
BOARD OF EDUCATION
World War II A segregated Army
After the War, Truman Desegregated
Armed Forces.

Black veterans’ held high expectations
of freedom after fighting to defend
freedom in the world.
Integration in Major League Baseball
1947
Cold War with Soviet Union—accused
US of hypocrisy
What effect did World War II have on the
attitude of the country and the world about US
practices of segregation?
1 million African
Americans
served in World
War II.
Over 500,000 of
these served
overseas in a
segregated
armed forces.
Medgar Evers
World War II Veteran
Returned to Mississippi
and wanted to Vote.
After returning home from World War II,
veteran Medgar Evers decided to vote
in a Mississippi election.



But when he and some other black ex-servicemen
attempted to vote, a white mob stopped them.
"All we wanted to be was ordinary citizens,“
Evers later related. "We fought during the war for
America, Mississippi included. Now, after the
Germans and Japanese hadn't killed us, it looked as
though the white Mississippians would. . . ."
Professor Anderson regards Brown as a
WATERSHED moment. The Supreme Court
committed to equality. But he also addresses
other failures of the Brown decision.
Eyes on the Prize Awakenings in 1954-1956
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2sy2r3q7ZfE
8:40 minutes
Brown v. Board of
Education (1954)

Why did Oliver Brown sue
on behalf of his daughter
Linda for admission to her
neighborhood school if as a
moderate state (Kansas)
Topeka schools were equal in
teachers’ salaries,
curriculum, and the most
basic facilities?
BROWN CASE
Organized by NAACP
Oliver Brown filed suit on behalf
of his daughter Linda (3rd Grade)
What did segregation mean?
Forced busing, forced
separation
Who were the plaintiffs?
Linda Brown and 12 others in
Topeka, and
similar cases in Delaware, Virginia,
South Carolina, Kansas, and
District of Columbia.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TTGHLdr-iak
5 minutes PBS
How did the Cold War rhetoric impact the
Federal perspective about urging a positive
decision in the Brown Case?

Discuss and come up with some ideas to share.
CHANGE World War II raised concerns
about race relations in US, the meaning of
freedom and equality.
During the Cold War, USSR points to
our hypocrisy—what does freedom
mean in a country that segregates by
law?
BROWN CASE



KANSAS WAS A MODERATE STATE
Topeka schools were equal in teachers’
salaries, curriculum, and the most basic
facilities.
OTHER STATES Poorly funded schools
in Delaware, Virginia, South Carolina,
Kansas, and District of Columbia.
NOT SEEKING JUST
EQULAIZATION, STRIKE DOWN
FORCED SEGREGATION
Linda Brown
1954 Education is perhaps the most important
function of state and local governments.“
—Chief Justice Earl Warren, May 1954
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TTGHLdr-iak
5 minutes PBS
What is the ESSENCE OF THE BROWN DECISION?
“We conclude that, in the field of public education, the
doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate
educational facilities are inherently unequal.”
Separation is a
mark of inferiority
NAACP and Families INTENT was
TO END “JIM CROW” custom and
laws of segregation and discrimination.
Brown overturned Plessy v. Ferguson
“separate but equal” law of 1896
Brown ended segregation laws
in 17 states and established
CONSTITUTIONAL EQUALITY
“AWE and
RESPECT”
High hopes
Write for 1 minute.
Assess the meaning
of this picture.
How was Brown
viewed in this
Chicago Defender
political cartoon in
1954?
Those who opposed
Brown advocated
Gradualism
Claim is: The court
is moving too fast.
SO: “No job for a
race horse”
BUT: Had there been
steady progress in
race relations?
1860--?
Jim Crow Laws and customs of
second class citizenship
Plessy v. Ferguson
Separate and “equal”
1896 until 1954
Brown 1954
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3LKlvW2LD3s
Edith Gee
2004
Massive Resistance
1957 – 1970s
Today Resegregation &
Achievement and
Opportunity Gaps
Improved
Graduation Rates
But Still Disparities
“No good old days.”
Forced Busing
Forced Separation

Linda Brown, 3rd
grade, was refused
admission to a school 6
blocks from her home.

She makes the walk to
the bus stop to attend
the segregated Monroe
school.
Topeka, Kansas
Kansas was a moderate
state in the 1950s

Forced segregation in elementary
schools, local option in upper
grades.

FIRST TIME In local court, a
social psychologist argued that
forced separation implies
inferiority of the segregated
group, this can impact ego
identity and motivation to learn.
Linda and Cheryl
Brown 1953
Did school segregation cause black children
to prefer a white doll over a black doll?
Interview with Kenneth Clark 1988 WGBH
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=64rSgf0iOhQ&play
next=1&list=PL43D9C89B6A0A3A61
“
Urban Academy, New York
A student made film.
“Black Like Me” by high school student Kiri Davis


Reproduces the doll study used in Brown v. Board
of Education with kids today.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rjy9q8VekmE
15 out of 21
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rjy9q8VekmE 3:20

ANOTHER HEADLINE New York Times headline on May
18, 1954: "A Sociological Decision: Court Founded Its
Segregation Ruling On Hearts and Minds Rather Than
Laws." James Reston commented that "the Court's opinion
reads more like an expert paper on sociology."

Expert witness Kenneth Clarke presented evidence of a doll
experiment to showed that Black children thought White dolls
more preferable than Black dolls. Court ruled separation harms
the hearts and minds of the separated group. (Video resource)
Today, education is perhaps the most important
function of state and local governments."
—Chief Justice Earl Warren, May 1954
Chief Justice Earl Warren, who justified the significance of
education in the Brown decision as being "the very
foundation of good citizenship."
 “… for the policy of separating the races is usually
interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the negro group. A
sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learn.
Segregation with the sanction of law, therefore, has a
tendency to [retard] the educational and mental development
of negro children and to deprive them of some of the benefits
they would receive in a racial[ly] integrated school system.
 We conclude that, in the field of public education, the
doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate
educational facilities are inherently unequal.”
ANOTHER
REACTION TO
BROWN 1954
Thomas Brady, a Mississippi
congressman called for the
end of public schools.
RESISTANCE TOOK
MANY FORMS
“MASSIVE RESISTANCE”
The court added
with….Brown II
1955
DO NOTHING
OR
MASSIVE RESISTANCE
1957-1958
Massive Resistance
State vs. Federal troops
http://www.smithsonianglobalsound.org/trackdetail.aspx?itemid=5541
OUTCOME of BROWN: Some schools desegregated, but
the school climate was frequently hostile. Some
communities resist ---Massive Resistance
http://www.smithsonianglobalsound.org/trackdetail.aspx?itemid=5541
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HH-eC4LgZT4
1957
Little Rock Nine
With protection
of Federal
Troops, the
students
attended school
in 1957-58.

STATE OF ARKANSAS
My name is Terry Roberts,
From Little Rock I come.
I went down to the schoolhouse,
The place they kept me from.
I went down to that schoolhouse,
And this is what I saw. . .
State troopers with steel helmets
In the State of Arkansas.
I went up to the troopers
And said, "Please let me in."
And all their guns were pointed
At the color of my skin.
They kept me from that
schoolhouse
Where I'd be by law.
And that's what they call justice
In the State of Arkansas.
Words: Dave Arkin; Music: State of Arkansas

Now his name is Orval Faubus,
The governor of the state,
He sent his army charging down,
Nine kids at the gate.
Three hundred National Guard
were there
Dressed up to fight a war,
And that is why I'm late for
school
In the State of Arkansas.
Oh listen, Mr. Governor,
And Mr. President, too.
Give me that constitution
That's what you've got to do.
Give me that constitution
I ask for nothing more.
Yes, that's what I want to study
In the State of Arkansas.
I've traveled this wide world
over,
Some ups and downs I've saw,
But I never knew what misery
was
Til I hit old Arkansas.

Melba Pattillo Beals

1957 One of the
Little Rock Nine
Warriors Don’t Cry
(1994)
Hostility and views of
inferiority stand in the way
in diverse schools
What is the difference between a desegregated and integrated
school?
DESEGREGATED Students go to school together, but minority
students are not comfortable, not treated as equal, nor given
the same educational opportunities in the curriculum. What is
SECOND GENERATION SEGREGATION? (Spring Ch. 3)
INTEGRATED A mix of minority and white students and equal
treatment and similar success for all students.
1958-1959 Massive Resistance Little Rock HS
The next year….. “This school is closed by order of
the Federal Government”
What is wrong with the message on this sign?
MASSIVE RESISTANCE IN VIRGINIA
In Prince Edward County schools for Black
students were severely under funded. In 1958
schools were ordered to desegregate. Anderson, 32
MASSIVE RESISTANCE IN VIRGINIA
In Prince Edward County schools for Black
students were severely under funded. In 1958
schools were ordered to desegregate Anderson, 31-32

Is it legal for a school district to close its schools and deny
students access to public education?

If the public schools were closed, who do you think would
be responsible for getting them reopened?

Schools were closed in Prince Edward County, Virginia to
avoid desegregation. How many years were schools
closed?
Griffen v. County School Board of
Prince Edward County








1959 Prince Edward County shuts down schools
NAACP sues
Virginia passes a law closing all schools that desegregate
 Law struck down in the courts
Prince Edward County Board votes to close schools
 Opens private academy, gives white students vouchers paid for with
state and local public funds
Court strikes down vouchers, but declines to rule on school closings, so
system continues.
Virginia Court rules counties are authorized, but not required to
provide schools, so system continues.
1964 Supreme Court strikes down the use of vouchers for only a few
students, but it also declines to rule on school closings.
Virginia desegregates schools.
What were the consequences
for Black students?
Griffen v. County School Board of Prince Edward
County

In 1964 the Supreme Court holds that closing the public
schools and appropriating public money to support
private, segregated education violates the Equal
Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
“Lost generation” February 2003
200 received honorary diplomas
(Anderson, 32) Virginia
State of Virginia, Issues regret
“…..severely affected the education of
African American students, wounding
the human spirit, and ultimately
contributing to job and home losses,
family displacements and separation,
and a deep sense of despair within the
African American community.”


Awarded “honorary” diplomas
Scholarship fund for GED or to support
college attendance today.
EDITH GEE
Professor James Anderson
“A Tale of Two Browns” and
“The Historical Context for
Understanding the Test Score Gap”
The most famous court case in US schooling
BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION
Outcome? Two ways of viewing this case.
There is “A Tale of Two Browns”
“AWE AND RESPECT” and
“A TROUBLED LEGACY”
Derrick Bell asks “How could a decision that promised so much
and, by its terms, accomplished so little?” (Anderson,14-15)

First Tale: A Landmark in Democracy
In a nation deeply conflicted about equality (see the history of
the battle over voting in D.C. , backlash against equal
rights--Sumner’s lost campaign for naturalized citizenship,
Sumner’s lost campaign on 1875 Civil Rights act, Supreme
Court decisions 1873, 1896 narrows 14th Amendment.
 LANDMARK Overturn Plessy v. Ferguson 1896 (Separate
and unequal) constitutional rights for students with
disabilities, girls, limited English proficiency, minority
students
 LANDMARK After 1954 impact felt beyond education—
in civil rights, housing, employment, social rights.
Conclusions: Brown brought a reinterpretation of the 14th
Amendment. Laws could not separate citizens or be used
to provide separate and unequal treatment.
Brown decision led to greater constitutional equality

Institutions and daily life: schooling, housing, busing,
employment, etc. Anderson, p. 15,22

BROWN was a bridge to passage of Civil Rights Act of 1964

The 1964 Civil Rights Act made racial discrimination in
public places, such as theaters, restaurants and hotels,
illegal. It also required employers to provide equal
employment opportunities. Projects involving federal
funds could now be cut off if there was evidence of
discriminated based on color, race or national origin.
(See Spring, Chapter 3 for description)
“AWE AND RESPECT” for Brown: CONSTITUTIONAL EQUALITY
LONGTERM IMPACT FOR SCHOOLING -ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL RIGHTS
For ALL STUDENTS Girls and women, students with disabilities,
limited English speaking students, and in the 1990s gay, lesbian and
transgendered students.
BUT Educational rights were not automatic: INDIVIDUAL (S) had to
SUE and go to COURT—after success in court THEN FEDERAL
LEGISLATION followed.

Second Tale: A Doubled-Edged Sword after Brown….



Resistance (Prince Edward County Virginia)
School districting used as a strategy to nullify
desegregation efforts (Milliken v. Bradley 1974)
Loss of teaching and administrative jobs for Blacks
 Those Black teachers who were retained?



http://www.pbs.org/onlyateacher/about3.html Brown and 100
Progress in high school attendance and graduation rates
Opportunity/Achievement GAP today due to educational
inequalities* see Stanford Chart on Inequalities in US
The history of schooling includes a major struggle for
equal education by many different groups of students.
Democracy is a work in progress CONTEXT
POLITICAL ECONOMY BACKED BY IDEOLOGY












+ 1868 14th Amendment Should have made all persons equal under the law
+ - 1885 California affirms public schools for all, but School Board creates
separate schools for Chinese students
- 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson --Court ruled in favor of legal segregation
- 1899 Cumming Case showed that education did not have to be equal even if
separate
+ 1945 Mendez Case in California struck down segregation for Mexican
American/Latino students
+ 1954 Brown Jubilation -- will effect practices beyond schools, housing,
transportation, public accommodations.
+ 1955 Brown II “All deliberate speed”
- 1955-1970 DO NOTHING or MASSIVE RESISTANCE
-Prince Edward county closes all schools rather than desegregate, Virginia funds
private schools for white students.
+ 1964 Griffen v. School Board of Prince Edward County
+ 1964 Civil Rights Act, prohibited discrimination based on race, ethnicity, and
nationality could withdraw Federal funds.
- 1960s-1980s Loss of jobs for Black principals and teachers (Anderson, 29-31)
Negative Effect of Desegregation on Black
Teachers and Principles:
Unintended Consequences of Brown
Anderson, 29-31

Closing of black schools, the loss of black schools as
important social and cultural institutions, a source of
community pride.

38,000 black teachers lost their jobs in southern and
border states between 1954-1964, another 21,515
teachers lost their jobs between 1984-1989.

The number of Black Principals also declined
dramatically.
Re-segregation of Today’s Schools
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3LKlvW2LD3s
May 17, 2009 55th Anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education
West Charlotte High School, North Carolina 2009
Why does this separation of students occur today? Work
together for 2 minutes and develop a list of reasons why.

SUMMARY OF DESEGREGATION AS A
RESULT OF BROWN



1950-1960s Little change
1970s-1980s Desegregated schools increase in
number, and reach a peak in the mid-1980s
1990s Schools become more segregated
DISAPPOINTMENT
What are the key educational issues of the
troubled legacy of Brown?
1. Ethnic/racial disparities in academic
achievement then and still today
Concern today about the OPPORTUNITY GAP See
Oakes and Lipton reading Unit 1, Chapter 1 “The
American Schooling Dilemma” 15-25)
2. Resegregation of public schools,
improved in 1980s, decline in 1990s.
3. Wide disparities in
public school funding
Anderson
“The Historic Context for Test Score Gap”
(pages 10-21) What progress has been made?
“The High School Completion Gap”
SOME EDUCATION GAPS HAVE BEEN ELIMINATED
FOR MINORITY STUDENTS

ACCESS TO HIGH SCHOOL (Still struggle with
differences in QUALITY of high schools between suburban,
urban and rural districts)
SUBSTANTIVE PROGRESS HAS BEEN MADE IN
GRADUATION RATES

HIGHER NATIONAL GRADUATION RATES (Some
schools still have VERY high dropout rates)
Anderson, “The Historic Context for Test Score Gap”
Recognize some progress.
Especially dramatic in the South-HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATION
Advances in high school graduation among
African American students especially in the
SOUTH which resisted providing high school
access (Anderson, Tale of Two Browns, 29;
Anderson “Historical Context” 10-14)
 1960 most African Americans obtained at
most an eighth grade education
 1970 25 and older, 31% high school
graduates
 1997 25-29 year olds 86% high school
graduates
HOW SHOULD WE READ THE TEST SCORE GAP?
What’s are the problems?
Lack of Increase in National Test Scores (NAEP)
NAEP Trends
National samples of students
Black/ White test score gap

What conclusions does Anderson draw regarding
the emphasis on the achievement gap?

Achievement Gap part of a larger issue of limited increases
by all students (white and black) on standardized tests.
What do the scores reveal about minority students?
 Minority students decreased the test score gap in the 1980s,
even though most were served more poorly funded schools.

Black and Latino students made gains in closing the
achievement gap over the past 30 years.

Younger minority students have decreased the achievement
score gap more than older students. More research needed
as to why these gains are not maintained.
What conclusions does Anderson draw regarding
the emphasis on the achievement gap, what is
missing in the analysis? Lessons of history

Recognition of the progress that was made in the history of education by
minority students.

Recognition of the capacity of minority students to achieve with
opportunities to learn.

Recognition of the need to draw on the strength of minority communities
to help develop successful school reforms.

Attend to QUALITY EDUCATION especially opportunities to learn in
schools and needed investments in education.

ANOTHER COMPLICATION IN TEST CIRCUMTANCES Recognition
of how test scores and school experiences can be effected by negative
stereotypes. STEREOTYPE THREAT
Recent research by Stanford Professor
Claude Steele (see Anderson, 2004, 20)
Recognition of how test scores and school experiences can be
effected by negative stereotypes. STEREOTYPE THREAT
Even among the brightest most talented students.
Negative stereotypes can impact the testing conditions and test
strategies of even gifted students.
Stereotyped threat-social psychology
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nGEUVM6QuMg&feature=related
Offered some solutions:
Low interest loans for STEM teacher education, forgive if teach in
needy schools
Provide incentives to teach in needy schools
Reduce emphasis on testing
Smaller class size for struggling students
Stabilize the teaching force, reduce teacher attrition by improved
working conditions, support, and > pay.
1860--?
Jim Crow Laws and customs of
second class citizenship
Plessy v. Ferguson
Separate and “equal”
1896 until 1954
Brown 1954
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3LKlvW2LD3s
Exam 2, be ready to
Analyze the legacy of
Brown v. Board
Edith Gee
2004
Massive Resistance
1957 – 1970s
Today Resegregation &
Achievement and
Opportunity Gaps
Improved
Graduation Rates
But Still Disparities